The book is written for individuals interested in procedures for increasing consultation skills to assist parents, teachers, and other socialization agents to solve mental health and educational problems of children and youths.
Assessed the effects of 3 increasingly inclusive versions of the Behavioral Consultation (BC) model on problem behavior in mainstream classrooms in an effort to develop an effective and efficient approach to prereferral intervention.
Discusses the relationship between academic performance or achievement and classroom environment factors. Classroom variables are conceptualized as an academic ecology that involves a network of relationships among student and environmental factors that affect the acquisition of new skills and student engagement in academic work.
Within a problem-solving paradigm, the focus of the special education (SE) identification process is defining the accommodations and modifications that will help a child succeed in the educational environment. The purpose of this chapter is to outline a set of best practices to assist school psychologists and other educational professionals in meeting this goal.
The three-Tier Reading Model provides a process for delivering quality reading instruction and reducing the prevalence of reading difficulties in kindergarten through third-grade students.
University of Texas Center for Reading and Language Arts. (2002). Introduction to the 3-Tier Reading Model: Reducing Reading Difficulties for Kindergarten Through Third Grade Students (4th ed.)
Explored in this article are (a) the long-standing relation between mental health and schools, (b) the current status of mental health programs and services in schools, (c) efforts to establish school-community collaboration, and (d) work related to reframing the approach to mental health in schools.
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (1998). Reframing mental health in schools and expanding school reform. Educational Psychologist, 33(4), 135-152.
This review (a) provides an overview of what schools currently do related to mental health and psychosocial concerns, (b) clarifies key emerging trends, and (c) explores implications for major systemic changes.
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (1999). Mental health in schools and system restructuring. Clinical Psychology Review, 19(2), 137-163.
This article explores this problem in terms of systemic change. Highlighted are basic ideas, phases, stages, steps, and lessons learned related to the planning, implementation, maintenance, and scale-up of school-based innovations
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2003). On sustainability of project innovations as systemic change. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 14(1), 1-25.
The functional family therapy approach described in this book, a synthesis of interpersonal, behavioral, and systems orientations, represents a new evolutionary step in the treatment of families. The goal of this book is to provide a clear description of the procedures and structure necessary for the successful practice of family therapy.
Alexander, J., & Parsons, B. V. (1982). Functional family therapy. Monterey, CA, US: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
This study examined a highly successful, well‐documented, national program to prevent teenage pregnancy and school failure—the Teen Outreach program—to address a fundamental question: How well can a developmentally focused, broadly targeted prevention program address the needs of those students within the program who are at the highest risk of problematic behavior.
Allen, J. P., & Philliber, S. (2001). Who benefits most from a broadly targeted prevention program? Differential efficacy across populations in the Teen Outreach Program. Journal of Community Psychology, 29(6), 637-655.
This document contains 13 articles concerned with the best practices in the supervision of school psychological services.
Allison, R. (2002). Best practices in supervision of school psychology staff. Best practices in school psychology IV, 115-130.
An ecological model for school-based mental health services that targets urban low-income aggressive children—a highly vulnerable and underserved population—is presented.
Atkins, M. S., McKay, M. M., Arvanitis, P., London, L., Madison, S., Costigan, C., ... & Bennett, D. (1998). An ecological model for school-based mental health services for urban low-income aggressive children. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 25(1), 64-75.
In this chapter, concepts and practices concerning readiness for change are discussed as part of the larger frame of technology transfer interventions.
Backer, T. E. (1995). Assessing and enhancing readiness for change: Implications for technology transfer. NIDA research monograph, 155, 21-41.
In this paper, the author surveys 117 published and unpublished studies spanning more than 25 years. He structures the literature review using a conceptual model shown as Program Implementation Stages
Backer, T. E. (2001). Finding the balance: Program fidelity and adaptation in substance abuse prevention: A state-of-the-art review. Rockville, MD: Center for Substance Abuse Prevention.
The committee members, who were appointed by the US National Academy of Science for their creative thinking and knowledge of medicine, healthcare, and commerce, provide excellently researched evidence for the failure of the US healthcare system.
Baker, A. (2001). Crossing the quality chasm: a new health system for the 21st century. Bmj, 323(7322), 1192.
This article explores factors influencing the sustained use of Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) in math in one elementary school.
Baker, S., Gersten, R., Dimino, J. A., & Griffiths, R. (2004). The sustained use of research-based instructional practice: A case study of peer-assisted learning strategies in mathematics. Remedial and Special Education, 25(1), 5-24.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 made important amendments to the federal special education law regarding the identification of students with learning disabilities. The book grounds RtI in law and policy predating IDEA 2004 in addition to walking the reader through the array of implementation issues.
Batsche, George, Judy Elliott, Janet L. Graden, Jeffrey Grimes, Joseph F. Kovaleski, David Prasse, D. J. Reschly, Judy Schrag, and W. David Tilly III. "Response to intervention: Policy considerations and implementation." Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Directors of Special Education(2005).
The Child Development Project is a comprehensive school program to reduce risk and bolster protective factors among children.
Battistich, V., Schaps, E., Watson, M., & Solomon, D. (1996). Prevention effects of the Child Development Project: Early findings from an ongoing multisite demonstration trial. Journal of Adolescent Research, 11(1), 12-35.
This study evaluates an exemplary system of care designed to provide comprehensive mental health services to children and adolescents
Bickman, L., Noser, K., & Summerfelt, W. T. (1999). Long-term effects of a system of care on children and adolescents. The journal of behavioral health services & research, 26(2), 185-202.
The modified Research, Development, and Diffusion (RD&D) model as exemplified by
change agents in federal organizations were examined as a viable strategy for
disseminating social program innovations.
Blakely, C. H., Mayer, J. P., Gottschalk, R. G., Schmitt, N., Davidson, W. S., Roitman, D. B., & Emshoff, J. G. (1987). The fidelity‐adaptation debate: Implications for the implementation of public sector social programs. American journal of community psychology, 15(3), 253-268.
Focus groups with teachers of students with learning disabilities (n = 30) and teachers of students with emotional/behavior disorders (n = 19) were conducted to examine the the teachers’ perspectives about educational research and the extent to which they found research findings to be useful.
Boardman, A. G., Argüelles, M. E., Vaughn, S., Hughes, M. T., & Klingner, J. (2005). Special education teachers' views of research-based practices. The Journal of Special Education, 39(3), 168-180.
evaluate the long-term efficacy of a school-based approach to drug abuse prevention.
Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Botvin, E. M., & Diaz, T. (1995). Long-term follow-up results of a randomized drug abuse prevention trial in a white middle-class population. Jama, 273(14), 1106-1112.
Students (N = 4,466) attending 56 schools in New York State were involved in a 3-year study testing the effectiveness of a cognitive-behavioral approach to substance abuse prevention.
Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Tortu, S., & Botvin, E. M. (1990). Preventing adolescent drug abuse through a multimodal cognitive-behavioral approach: results of a 3-year study. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 58(4), 437.
This volume describes research aimed at identifying 10 model programs proven effective for violence prevention; describes the 10 programs selected from the more than 400 reviewed; and details the goals, targeted risk and protective factors, design, and other aspects of Life Skills Training, one of the model programs selected.
Botvin, G. J., Mihalic, S. F., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1998). Blueprints for violence prevention: Book five: Life skills training. Boulder, CO: Center for Study and Prevention of Violence.
The authors tested the effectiveness of 2 alcohol and drug abuse prevention programs among inner-city minority 7th-grade students (N = 639) from 6 New York City public schools.
Botvin, G. J., Schinke, S. P., Epstein, J. A., & Diaz, T. (1994). Effectiveness of culturally focused and generic skills training approaches to alcohol and drug abuse prevention among minority youths. Psychology of addictive behaviors, 8(2), 116.
This article describes the characteristics of school mental health and social services in the United States, including state‐ and district‐level policies and school practices.
Brener, N. D., Martindale, J., & Weist, M. D. (2001). Mental health and social services: Results from the School Health Policies and Programs Study 2000. Journal of School Health, 71(7), 305-312.
Explores existing models of the school as a health care service delivery setting and considers the implications of these models for the practice of psychology in schools.
Carlson, C. I., Paavola, J., & Talley, R. (1995). Historical, current, and future models of schools as health care delivery settings. School Psychology Quarterly, 10(3), 184.
Educators at all levels, from classroom teachers to national policymakers, routinely use and approve materials and techniques without testing or evaluating them. This costs schools millions of dollars and does not yield the results educators and the public are clamoring for.
Carnine, D. (1993). Facts Over fads. Education Week, 40.
in this perspective, the author challenge us to accept the responsibility of moving education forward by doing more than paying lip service to the translation of research into practice.
Carnine, D. (1999). Campaigns for moving research into practice. Remedial and Special Education, 20(1), 2-35.
In this report, the rationale, development, implementation, and evaluation of a school-based mental health services program for high-risk children with serious emotional and behavioral problems is described.
Catron, T., & Weiss, B. (1994). The Vanderbilt school-based counseling program: An interagency, primary-care model of mental health services. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 2(4), 247-253.
This document is one of a series of reports based on the Special Education Expenditure Project, a study of the nation's spending on special education and related services based on analysis of data for the 1999-2000 school year.
Chambers, J. G., Parrish, T. B., & Harr, J. J. (2002). What Are We Spending on Special Education Services in the United States, 1999-2000? Report. Special Education Expenditure Project (SEEP).
Two school-based primary prevention interventions for adolescent depressive symptomatology and disorder were examined in separate studies with high school samples of 9th and 10th-grade adolescents.
Clarke, G. N., Hawkins, W., Murphy, M., & Sheeber, L. (1993). School-based primary prevention of depressive symptomatology in adolescents: Findings from two studies. Journal of Adolescent Research, 8(2), 183-204.
This article draws on a review of theoretical and empirical literature on scale, relevant research on reform implementation, and original research to synthesize and articulate a more multidimensional conceptualization
Coburn, C. E. (2003). Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change. Educational researcher, 32(6), 3-12.
A randomized experiment of Comer's School Development Program was conducted in 23 middle schools in Prince George's County, Maryland. Quasiexperimental analyses showed that the program theory may be correct in many of its predictions about student changes in psychological and social outcomes, but not achievement
Cook, T. D., Habib, F. N., Phillips, M., Settersten, R. A., Shagle, S. C., & Degirmencioglu, S. M. (1999). Comer's school development program in Prince George's County, Maryland: A theory-based evaluation. American Educational Research Journal, 36(3), 543-597.
Using fifth through eighth-grade students, the Comer School Development Program was evaluated in 10 inner city Chicago schools over 4 years, contrasting them with nine randomly selected no-treatment comparison schools.
Cook, T. D., Murphy, R. F., & Hunt, H. D. (2000). Comer's School Development Program in Chicago: A theory-based evaluation. American Educational Research Journal, 37(2), 535-597.
An analysis of national and state placement patterns of students with serious emotional disturbance (SED) between 1988 and 1991 is reported. Relationships among state rates of placement across placement options and several economic and demographic variables also are examined.
Coutinho, M. J., & Oswald, D. (1996). Identification and placement of students with serious emotional disturbance. Part II: National and state trends in the implementation of LRE. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4(1), 40-52.
The purpose of this study was to investigate gender and ethnicity disproportionality among students identified as having emotional disturbance (ED) and relationships between identification and sociodemographic factors.
Coutinho, M. J., Oswald, D. P., Best, A. M., & Forness, S. R. (2002). Gender and sociodemographic factors and the disproportionate identification of culturally and linguistically diverse students with emotional disturbance. Behavioral Disorders, 27(2), 109-125.
Cronbach discuss the past and future place within psychology of two historic streams of method, thought, and affiliation which run through the last century of our science. One stream is experimental psychology; the other, correlational psychology.
Cronbach, L. J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology. American psychologist, 12(11), 671.
In order to engage effectively in system-level consultation, school psychologists need to call upon three areas of expertise: (a) understanding human behavior from a social systems perspective, (b) ability to use collaborative planning and problem solving procedures, and (c) familiarity with principles for organizational change
Curtis, M. J., & Stollar, S. A. (2002). Best practices in system-level change.
The goal of this article is to illustrate various strategies that the Hawaii Child and Adolescent Mental Health Division adopted to increase the use of empirical evidence to improve the quality services and outcomes for youth.
Daleiden, E. L., & Chorpita, B. F. (2005). From data to wisdom: Quality improvement strategies supporting large-scale implementation of evidence-based services. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America, 14(2), 329-349.
Taking Response to Intervention to Scale: Developing and Implementing a Quality Response-to-Intervention Process
Daly, III, E. J., Kupzyk, S., Bossard, M., Street, J., & Dymacel, R. (2008). Taking Response to Intervention to Scale: Developing and Implementing a Quality Response-to-Intervention Process. Journal of Evidence-Based Practices for Schools, 9(2), 102-127.
This seven-year study of the Coalition Campus Schools Project in New York City documented a unique “birthing” process for new, small schools that were created as part of a network of reform-oriented schools in a context of systemwide reform.
Darling-Hammond, L., Ancess, J., & Ort, S. W. (2002). Reinventing high school: Outcomes of the coalition campus schools project. American educational research journal, 39(3), 639-673.
Problems associated with the school psychologists traditional assessment functions and methodology are identified and contrasted with the need for assessment information that can contribute meaningfully to the formulation and evaluation of educational interventions.
Deno, S. L. (1986). Formative evaluation of individual student programs: A new role for school psychologists. School Psychology Review.
a mini-series from School Psychology Review about Academic Enablers to Improve Student Performance: Considerations for Research and Practice.
DiPerna, J., & Elliott, S. N. (2002). Promoting academic enablers to improve student performance: Considerations for research and practice [Special issue]. School Psychology Review, 31(3).
This volume of the Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act includes a number of modules reporting on the results of the National Assessment, as stipulated in Section 674(b)(4)(B) of the IDEA Amendments of 1997.
Division of Educational Services, Office of Special Education Programs. (2001). Twenty-third annual report to congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
This book presents a wide variety of exemplary programs addressing behavioral and social problems, school failure, drug use, injuries, child abuse, physical health, and other critical issues.
Durlak, J. A. (1997). Successful prevention programs for children and adolescents. Springer Science & Business Media.
A review of school‐based drug abuse prevention programs was conducted for 1989–1994. In addition to a comprehensive literature review, interviews were conducted with a panel of 15 leading experts in prevention research. Key elements of promising prevention curricula were identified.
Dusenbury, L., & Falco, M. (1995). Eleven components of effective drug abuse prevention curricula. Journal of school health, 65(10), 420-425.
The causes of long-term continuity in the level of children's school performance are not completely understood. Some of the continuity undoubtedly stems from the persistence of cognitive status. This article reports on a follow-up study of school children in Baltimore that shows that it can also be related to the child's early social environment.
Entwisle, D. R., & Hayduk, L. A. (1988). Lasting effects of elementary school. Sociology of Education, 147-159.
Presents some of the current best practices in services for children and their families, as well as in the research and evaluation of these services.
Epstein, M. H., Kutash, K. E., & Duchnowski, A. E. (1998). Outcomes for children and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders and their families: Programs and evaluation best practices. Pro-Ed.
this paper is a mini-series from Scool Psychology Review. This special issue review highlights current research effort in American schools on bullying and peer victimization. and how this research can inform prevention and intervention planning.
Espelage, D. L., & Swearer Napolitano, S. M. (2003). Research on school bullying and victimization: What have we learned and where do we go from here?[Mini-series].
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between school climate and children's academic and social development in the early elementary school years, controlling for maternal education and family resources, and to determine whether factors underlying school climate influence those outcomes.
Esposito, C. (1999). Learning in urban blights: School climate and its effect on the school performance of urban, minority, low-income children. School Psychology Review, 28(3), 365.
This paper describes the results of a process evaluation focused on discovering common implementation obstacles faced by schools implementing the Life Skills Training (LST) drug prevention program.
Fagan, A. A., & Mihalic, S. (2003). Strategies for enhancing the adoption of school‐based prevention programs: Lessons learned from the Blueprints for Violence Prevention replications of the Life Skills Training program. Journal of Community Psychology, 31(3), 235-253.
The purpose of this commentary is to consider the crisis in education and the complex role teachers play in our society; to examine critically major aspects of the traditional modus operandi of behavior analysis that are counterproductive to teacher use; and to identify practices related to promoting greater teacher use and thereby enhancing the relevance of behavioral technology in education.
Fantuzzo, J., & Atkins, M. (1992). Applied behavior analysis for educators: Teacher centered and classroom based. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(1), 37.
The purpose of this article is to present a conceptual framework for advancing mental health science and practice for vulnerable children that is in accord with the Surgeon General’s priorities for change.
Fantuzzo, J., McWayne, C., & Bulotsky, R. (2003). Forging strategic partnerships to advance mental health science and practice for vulnerable children. School Psychology Review, 32(1), 17-37.
Fueled by public incidents and growing evidence of deficiencies in care, concern over the quality and outcomes of care has increased in both the United Kingdom and the United States. Both countries have launched a number of initiatives to deal with these issues.
Ferlie, E. B., & Shortell, S. M. (2001). Improving the quality of health care in the United Kingdom and the United States: a framework for change. The Milbank Quarterly, 79(2), 281-315.
This paper discusses common elements of successfully sustaining effective practices across a variety of disciplines.
Fixsen, D. L., Blase, K. A., Duda, M., Naoom, S. F., & Van Dyke, M. (2010). Sustainability of evidence-based programs in education. Journal of Evidence-Based Practices for Schools, 11(1), 30-46.
Quality indicators of prereferral interventions (i.e., behavioral definition, direct measure, step-by-step plan, treatment integrity, graphing of results, and direct comparison to baseline) were investigated as predictors of prereferral intervention outcomes with a sample of regular education teachers and related services personnel on the same 312 students.
Flugum, K. R., & Reschly, D. J. (1994). Prereferral interventions: Quality indices and outcomes. Journal of School Psychology, 32(1), 1-14.
Use of early detection and ongoing assessment of response as a basis for more focused intervention is described. Primary and secondary prevention issues also are discussed in relation to this approach.
Forness, S. R., Kavale, K. A., MacMillan, D. L., Asarnow, J. R., & Duncan, B. B. (1996). Early detection and prevention of emotional or behavioral disorders: Developmental aspects of systems of care. Behavioral Disorders, 21(3), 226-240.
The main enemies of large-scale reform are overload and extreme
fragmentation, Mr. Fullan points out. The three stories he outlines here serve
to lend coherence to an otherwise disjointed system.
Fullan, M. (2000). The three stories of education reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 81(8), 581-584.
This book is written for individuals at all levels of the educational system. All key players will find a chapter on their own roles, as well as chapters on other roles and agencies with whom they must interact.
Fullan, M. (2001). The new meaning of educational change. Routledge.
Sustainability has eight core elements, each carrying implications for those in the superintendency. In this article, the author expands on these eight core elements for sustainability.
Fullan, M. (2005). Resiliency and sustainability. The School Administrator, 62 (2).
Fullan, M., Bertani, A., & Quinn, J. (2004). New Lessons for Districtwide Reform. Educational Leadership, 61(7), 42.
This two‐level study of child welfare and juvenile justice case management teams addresses construct, measurement, and composition issues that plague multilevel research on organizational culture and climate.
Glisson, C., & James, L. R. (2002). The cross‐level effects of culture and climate in human service teams. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 23(6), 767-794.
We, the people, appear to understand that the linchpin of each American's necessary apprenticeship in a democracy is a qualified, caring, competent classroom teacher, Mr. Goodlad points out. The role of Presidents and governors is to cheer us on, not to mislead us with the mythology of school reform.
Goodlad, J. I. (2002). Kudzu, rabbits, and school reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 84(1), 16-23.
This article assesses these differences using data from 981 Black and White male and female adolescents and latent variable structural equations techniques.
Gottfredson, D. C., & Koper, C. S. (1996). Race and sex differences in the prediction of drug use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(2), 305-313.
The study uses data from 2018 Black and White males and females and latent-variable structural equations techniques to examine group differences in the measurement of risk factors for substance use.
Gottfredson, D. C., & Koper, C. S. (1997). Race and sex differences in the measurement of risk for drug use. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 13(3), 325-347.
A 3-year study in eight middle schools tested a program to improve adolescent conduct. The program sought to increase clarity of school rules and consistency of rule enforcement, improve classroom organization and management, increase the frequency of communication with the home regarding student behavior, and increase reinforcement of appropriate behavior.
Gottfredson, D. C., Gottfredson, G. D., & Hybl, L. G. (1993). Managing adolescent behavior a multiyear, multischool study. American Educational Research Journal, 30(1), 179-215.
This project was undertaken to develop a comprehensive account of the levels of problem behaviors in schools. It also looked at what schools do to prevent problem behaviors and how they promote a safe and orderly environment.
Gottfredson, G. D., Gottfredson, D. C., Czeh, E. R., Cantor, D., Crosse, S. B., & Hantman, I. (2000). National Study of Delinquency Prevention in Schools. Final Report.
This report has been developed to help stimulate researchers and practitioners to place greater emphasis on how they conceptualize and measure implementation of evidence-based prevention programs
Greenberg, M. T., Domitrovich, C. E., Graczyk, P. A., & Zins, J. E. (2005). The study of implementation in school-based preventive interventions: Theory, research, and practice. Promotion of Mental Health and Prevention of Mental and Behavioral Disorders 2005 Series V3, 21.
Greenberg, M. T., Kusche, C. A., Cook, E. T., & Quamma, J. P. (1995). Promoting emotional competence in school-aged children: The effects of the PATHS curriculum. Development and psychopathology, 7(1), 117-136.
The report examines the effect of state funding systems and high stakes testing on special
education enrollment.
Greene, J. P., & Forster, G. (2002). Effects of Funding Incentives on Special Education Enrollment. Civic Report.
This column suggests an intervention continuum to be used that extends beyond the current model, providing a matrix that aligns social-emotional or behavioral skills with specific interventions shown to be effective for students who fall under other disability labels.
Gresham, F. M., Lane, K. L., & O'Shaughnessy, T. E. (2002). Interventions for children with or at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Boston, MA: Allya and Bacon.
Discusses educational changes from a system perspective. Sets forth a series of assertions based on eight years of experience with special-education reform initiatives in Iowa. Presents generalizations from an experiential base regarding critical components and characteristics of change process. Gives specific recommendations for persons contemplating educational innovative initiatives.
Grimes, J., & Tilly III, W. D. (1996). Policy and Process: Means to Lasting Educational Change. School Psychology Review, 25(4), 465-76.
To determine if a commonly used violence prevention curriculum, Second Step: A Violence Prevention Curriculum, leads to a reduction in aggressive behavior and an increase in prosocial behavior among elementary school students.
Grossman, D. C., Neckerman, H. J., Koepsell, T. D., Liu, P. Y., Asher, K. N., Beland, K., ... & Rivara, F. P. (1997). Effectiveness of a violence prevention curriculum among children in elementary school: A randomized controlled trial. Jama, 277(20), 1605-1611.
In this issue you will find both a brief introduction to the new Empirically Supported Interventions Section and the first of a two-part substantive discussion of vital issues pertaining to this topic. A companion piece further extending this analysis will follow shortly in a subsequent issue.
Gutkin, T. B. (2000). Empirically supported interventions: Initiating a new standing section in School Psychology Quarterly. School Psychology Quarterly, 15(1), 1.
To examine the long-term effects of an intervention combining teacher training, parent education, and social competence training for children during the elementary grades on adolescent health-risk behaviors at age 18 years.
Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., & Hill, K. G. (1999). Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 153(3), 226-234.
This article provides an overview of multisystemic therapy (MST). Specifically, the theoretical and empirical foundations for the demonstrated clinical and cost-effectiveness of MST in treating children and adolescents presenting serious clinical problems and their families are discussed.
Henggeler, S. W. (2001). Multisystemic therapy. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 18(3), 75-85.
Validated a measure of clinical supervision practices, further validated a measure of therapist adherence, and examined the association between supervisory practices and therapist adherence to an evidence-based treatment model (i.e., multisystemic therapy [MST]) in real-world clinical settings.
Henggeler, S. W., Schoenwald, S. K., Liao, J. G., Letourneau, E. J., & Edwards, D. L. (2002). Transporting efficacious treatments to field settings: The link between supervisory practices and therapist fidelity in MST programs. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31(2), 155-167.
Like proponents of standards-based reform in other states, Washington State policy and business leaders assumed that the establishment of a performance-based system would change the behavior of teachers, parents, school administrators, and students.
Hill, P. T., Lake, R. J., Petrilli, M. J., & Cohen, M. (2002). Standards and accountability in Washington state. Brookings papers on education policy, (5), 199-234.
This outstanding textbook presents innovative interventions for youth with severe emotional and behavioral disorders. Community Treatment for Youth is designed to fill a gap between the knowledge base and clinical practice through its presentation of theory, practice parameters, training requirements, and research evidence.
Hoagwood, K. I. M. B. E. R. L. Y., Burns, B. J., & Weisz, J. R. (2002). A profitable conjunction: From science to service in children’s mental health. Community treatment for youth: Evidence-based interventions for severe emotional and behavioral disorders, 327-338.
This report, preceded as it was by the seminal report of the Surgeon General on Mental Health (2000) and followed by the Surgeon General’s Youth Violence (2001) and Culture, Race and Ethnicity Reports (2002), represented a critical shift in federal health priorities.
Hoagwood, K., & Johnson, J. (2003). School psychology: A public health framework: I. From evidence-based practices to evidence-based policies. Journal of School Psychology, 41(1), 3-21.
Implementing Change: Patterns, Principles, and Potholes, by Gene E. Hall and Shirley M. Hord, is a comprehensive resource for those interested in learning more about change in general and specifically the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM).
Hord, S. M., & Hall, G. (2014). Implementing change-Patterns, principles, and potholes. Pearson Education (us).
This book presents clear and functional techniques for deciding what students with learning disabilities should be taught and how. This book can also function as a tool to assist pre-service teachers (students) with deciding how to teach and what to teach to regular/non-special education children.
Howell, K. W. (1993). Curriculum-based evaluation: Teaching and decision making. Cengage Learning.
This study examined the relationships between 2 carefully specified dimensions of teacher efficacy (general and personal teaching efficacy) and aspects of a healthy school climate (institutional integrity, principal influence, consideration, resource support, morale, and academic emphasis).
Hoy, W. K., & Woolfolk, A. E. (1993). Teachers' sense of efficacy and the organizational health of schools. The elementary school journal, 93(4), 355-372.
This book offers the basis for answering these and other questions. The authors demonstrate the significant relationship that exists between school health and academic performance. They then present the measures, developed over many years of careful research, that can best test the organizational climate of any school.
Hoy, W. K., Tarter, C. J., & Kottkamp, R. B. (1991). Open schools, healthy schools: Measuring organizational climate. Corwin Press.
A meta-analysis was undertaken to synthesize research results about the effectiveness of mainstream service programs for minority juvenile delinquents relative to White delinquents.
Jo Wilson, S., Lipsey, M. W., & Soydan, H. (2003). Are mainstream programs for juvenile delinquency less effective with minority youth than majority youth? A meta-analysis of outcomes research. Research on Social Work Practice, 13(1), 3-26.
This article presents an informed definition of sustainability and an associated planning model for sustaining innovations (pertinent to both infrastructure and interventions) within organizational, community, and state systems.
Johnson, K., Hays, C., Center, H., & Daley, C. (2004). Building capacity and sustainable prevention innovations: a sustainability planning model. Evaluation and program planning, 27(2), 135-149.
The book is an attempt to extend the description and explanation of organizational processes we have shifted from an earlier emphasis on traditional concept of individual psychology and interpersonal relationship.
Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations (Vol. 2, p. 528). New York: Wiley.
Addressing research-to-practice issues effectively requires getting researchers to do better research and getting policymakers to make better choices.
Kauffman, J. M. (1996). Research to practice issues. Behavioral Disorders, 22(1), 55-60.
Ninety-four children (aged 9-13 years) with anxiety disorders were randomly assigned to cognitive behavioral treatment or waiting-list control.
Kendall, P. C., Flannery-Schroeder, E., Panichelli-Mindel, S. M., Southam-Gerow, M., Henin, A., & Warman, M. (1997). Therapy for youths with anxiety disorders: A second randomized clincal trial. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 65(3), 366.
This book provides information on the process and skills of data visualization, teaching the concepts and skills of how to present data and inspiring effective visual design.
Kirk, A. (2016). Data visualisation: a handbook for data driven design. Sage.
This report presents an overview of issues related to evidence-based practice and the role that the school psychology profession can play in developing and disseminating evidence-based interventions.
Kratochwill, T. R., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Evidence-based practice: Promoting evidence-based interventions in school psychology. School Psychology Quarterly, 18(4), 389.
The task force on interventions by the American Psychological Association (APA, Task Force on Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures, 1995) stimulated considerable enthusiasm among many about the role of ESIs in practice.
Kratochwill, T. R., & Stoiber, K. C. (2000). Diversifying theory and science: Expanding the boundaries of empirically supported interventions in school psychology. Journal of School Psychology, 38(4), 349-358.
The inauguration of the ESI section of School Psychology Quarterly represents a new era in research for our profession that we hope will usher in advancements for both the science and practice of school psychology.
Kratochwill, T. R., & Stoiber, K. C. (2000). Empirically supported interventions: Announcing a new standing section of School Psychology Quarterly. School Psychology Quarterly, 15(1), 69.
This workbook helps program developers and community leaders identify basic issues in: sustaining promising initiatives, addressing strategic details, and developing a comprehensive plan. It includes a guide and five step-by-step modules that help initiative leaders identify specific resources and strategies that are needed to successfully sustain effective programs and services.
Langford, B. H., & Flynn, M. (2003). Sustainability planning workbook. Finance Project.
This article describes Effective Behavioral Support, a systems approach to enhancing the capacity of schools to adopt and sustain use of effective processes for all students.
Lewis, T. J., & Sugai, G. (1999). Effective behavior support: A systems approach to proactive schoolwide management. Focus on Exceptional Children, 31(6), 1.
This paper examines the evidence-based education issues that come into play with the implementation of a Positive Behavior Support school culture.
Lewis-Palmer, T., & Barrett, S. (2007). Establishing and sustaining statewide positive behavior supports implementation: A description of Maryland’s model. Journal of Evidence-Based Practices for Schools, 8(1), 45-61.
in this article, the author describes the policies of precision teaching.
Lindsley, O. R. (1990). Precision teaching: By teachers for children. Teaching Exceptional Children, 22(3), 10-15.
The bulletin describes the procedures used to select studies for the meta-analysis, presents the methods of analysis used to answer the above questions, and then discusses effective interventions for noninstitutionalized and institutionalized offenders.
Lipsey, M. W. (2000). Effective intervention for serious juvenile offenders. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
This study examines key substance use, delinquency, and school-based aggressive behavior outcomes at a 1-year follow-up for a cognitive-behavioral intervention delivered to aggressive children and their parents at the time of these children's transition to middle school.
Lochman, J. E., & Wells, K. C. (2003). Effectiveness of the Coping Power Program and of classroom intervention with aggressive children: Outcomes at a 1-year follow-up. Behavior Therapy, 34(4), 493-515.
In 1986, the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) position paper, "Rights without Labels," was published. This document was radical because it acknowledged that serious problems existed in the educational classification system and proposed the necessity of serving students with special needs within the general education setting without labeling them.
Lockwood, A., & Coulter, A. (2017). Rights without Labels: Thirty Years Later. Communique, 45(6).
This comprehensive approach recognizes that school environments can be adaptive systems with the potential to prevent or ameliorate behavior problems.
McLaughlin, M. J., Leone, P. E., Meisel, S., & Henderson, K. (1997). Strengthen school and community capacity. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 5(1), 15-23.
This article describes the results of a process evaluation focused on discovering common implementation obstacles faced by 42 sites implementing eight of the Blueprints programs. This evaluation revealed that most sites involved in the project faced many challenges when implementing in real-world settings
Mihalic, S. F., & Irwin, K. (2003). Blueprints for violence prevention: From research to real-world settings—factors influencing the successful replication of model programs. Youth violence and juvenile justice, 1(4), 307-329.
This Report describes the Blueprints programs, presents lessons learned about program implementation, and provides recommendations for program designers, funders, and implementing agencies and organizations.
Mihalic, S., Ballard, D., Michalski, A., Tortorice, J., Cunningham, L., & Argamaso, S. (2002). Blueprints for violence prevention, violence initiative: Final process evaluation report. Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO.
The Classroom Environment Scale (CES) helps create a positive school climate in which more students succeed. The instrument evaluates the effects of course content, teaching methods, teacher personality, class composition and characteristics of the overall classroom environment.
Moors, R.H., & Trickett, E. J. (1979). Classroom Environment Scale Manual (2nd Ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Council.
Reschly, D. J. (1988). Obstacles, starting points, and doldrums notwithstanding: Reform/revolution from outcomes criteria. School Psychology Review, 17(3), 495-501.
n response to comments by M. Will, J. F. Kovaleski, G. W. Hynd, and J. M. Kauffman (see PA, Vol 76:3298, 3279, 3276, and 3277, respectively), the present author extends critical discussion of critical points and clarifies issues of disagreement in his article on a revolution in school psychological services as a result of the special education reform movement.
The Workgroup reviewed the NIMH research portfolio that extends from academic research settings to large, State-wide service systems, to the moving target of “front-line” clinical care. The review made vividly clear the need for mutually enriching interaction between research and both practice and service systems.
National Institute of Mental Health. (1999). Bridging science and service: A report by the National Advisory Mental Health Council's Clinical Treatment and Services Research Workgroup.
The book recommends that federal and state policy makers take on the responsibility of promoting equal access to technology while the federal government and foundations play an important role by supporting the development, evaluation, and revision of OTPD.
National Research Council. (2007). Enhancing professional development for teachers: Potential uses of information technology. Report of a Workshop. Committee on Enhancing Professional Development for Teachers, National Academies Teacher Advisory Council. Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. https://www.nap.edu/read/11995/chapter/1
Research on students with serious emotional disturbances (SED) suggests that these children are significantly underidentified. National special education data bear out this conclusion to a large extent.
Oswald, D. P., & Coutinho, M. J. (1995). Identification and placement of students with serious emotional disturbance. Part I: Correlates of state child-count data. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 3(4), 224-229.
This guide for parents outlines what they need to know about the legislation.
Paige, R. (2002). What to know and where to go parent’s guide to no child left behind a new era in education. Washington, DC: US Dept. of Education, Office of the Secretary.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a brief overview of historical trends in the funding of special education programs, to discuss current issues, and to consider alternative directions for the future
Parrish, T. B. (1996). Special Education Finance: Past, Present, and Future. Policy Paper Number 8.
Recognizing that what, how, and how much children learn in school depends in large part on the social and emotional competence they developed as preschoolers, this monograph examines the current state of research regarding the social and emotional risk and protective factors that predict early school problems or success.
Peth-Pierce, R. (2000). A Good Beginning: Sending America's Children to School with the Social and Emotional Competence They Need To Succeed.
This award-winning twelve-volume reference covers every aspect of the ever-fascinating discipline of psychology and represents the most current knowledge in the field. This ten-year revision now covers discoveries based in neuroscience, clinical psychology's new interest in evidence-based practice and mindfulness, and new findings in social, developmental, and forensic psychology.
Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B., Stuhlman, M., Reynolds, W. M., & Miller, G. E. (2003). Handbook of psychology: Educational psychology.
This article introduces the special series in School Psychology Review on "Emerging models for promoting children's mental health: Linking systems for prevention and intervention." This article describes existing problems with the mental health system and priorities tha have been identified as targets for change.
Power, T. J. (2003). Promoting children's mental health: Reform through interdisciplinary and community partnerships. School Psychology Review, 32(1), 3.
This article identify five areas that subsume the major activities of problem solving or non categorical service delivery. They are (1) assessment for interventions (2) support for interventions (3) parent involvement (4) problem solving collaboration (5) resources for students as a part of general education.
Prasse, D. P., & Schrag, J. A. (1999). Providing noncategorical, functional, classroom-based supports for students with disabilities: Legal parameters. AUTHOR Reschly, Daniel J., Ed.; Tilly, W. David, III, Ed.; Grimes, Jeffrey P., Ed. TITLE Functional and Noncategorical Identification and, 201.
Presents an analysis and critique of current school psychological services that emphasize unresolved dilemmas in the current system, which are interpreted as establishing the basis for special education reform.
Reschly, D. J. (1988). Special education reform: School psychology revolution. School Psychology Review.
This chapter describe and contrast different paradigms for the design and delivery of school psychological services, analyze problems in the traditional delivery system, and review major policy and reform statements. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the knowledge base, underlying principles, and strategies that form the basis for psychological services that emphasize problem solving, functional assessment, and educational accountability.
Reschly, D. J., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (2002). Paradigm shift: The past is not the future.
Drawing on normative, empirical, and critical literatures, this review explores the role of school administrators in responding to the needs of diverse students. Three administrative tasks are highlighted: fostering new meanings about diversity, promoting inclusive school cultures and instructional programs, and building relationships between schools and communities.
Riehl, C. J. (2000). The principal's role in creating inclusive schools for diverse students: A review of normative, empirical, and critical literature on the practice of educational administration. Review of educational research, 70(1), 55-81.
The roles and functions of 52 school psychologists from Iowa and Tennessee were examined. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to test differences between reported time spent on prereferral, assessment, intervention, consultation, and curriculum‐based assessment
Roberts, A. H., & Rust, J. O. (1994). Role and function of school psychologists, 1992–93: A comparative study. Psychology in the Schools, 31(2), 113-119.
This paper provides a synthetic review of research on school-based mental health services.
Rones, M., & Hoagwood, K. (2000). School-based mental health services: A research review. Clinical child and family psychology review, 3(4), 223-241.
This book examines the major themes of instruction and gives a step-by-step outline of the consultation process from referral to the final report.
Rosenfield, S. (2013). Instructional consultation. Routledge.
Twenty-eight investigations were identified in which general education teachers were surveyed regarding their perceptions of including students with disabilities in their classes. Research synthesis procedures were employed to summarize responses and examine the consistency of responses across time, geographical location, and item type.
Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1996). Teacher perceptions of mainstreaming/inclusion, 1958–1995: A research synthesis. Exceptional children, 63(1), 59-74.
The leadership stories in the book demonstrate the many ways that the core ideas in The Fifth Discipline, many of which seemed radical when first published in 1990, have become deeply integrated into people's ways of seeing the world and their managerial practices.
Senge, P. M. (2006). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. Broadway Business.
This book offers the latest in evidence-based measures that have proven to create safer, more effective schools. The book emphasizes the interwoven nature of violence and academic underachievement, the importance of prevention and early intervention, the need to integrate intervention and remediation services in a seamless delivery system, and the enormous protective benefits of school success in all areas of a child's life.
Shinn, M. R., Walker, H. M., & Stoner, G. E. (2002). Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches. National Association of School Psychologists.
This chapter examine the intricacies of teaching beginning reading in schools and describe a pre- vention model of schoolwide beginning reading improvement.
Simmons, D. C., Kame’enui, E. J., Good, R. H., Harn, B. A., Cole, C., & Braun, D. (2002). Building, implementing, and sustaining a beginning reading improvement model: Lessons learned school by school. Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches, 537-570.
This article describes Success for All, a comprehensive reform program for elementary
schools, with a focus on strategies the program uses to increase the chances that the
program will remain in use over extended periods.
Slavin, R. E. (2004). Built to last: Long-term maintenance of success for all. Remedial and Special Education, 25(1), 61-66.
The authors argue that, although conceptualizing school psychology as primarily an indirect service specialty has advanced our thinking about effective service delivery, conceptualizing school psychological services from a public health perspective will provide an even broader framework that can increase both the efficacy and efficiency of school psychologists' work.
Strein, W., Hoagwood, K., & Cohn, A. (2003). School psychology: A public health perspective: I. Prevention, populations, and systems change. Journal of School Psychology, 41(1), 23-38.
The thesis of this paper is that the current problem behavior of students in elementary and middle schools requires a preventive, whole-school approach. The foundation for such an approach lies in the emerging technology of positive behavior support.
Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2002). The evolution of discipline practices: School-wide positive behavior supports. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 24(1-2), 23-50.
Reports a study that analyzed relationships among supportive principal behavior, faculty collegiality, faculty trust, and effectiveness. Data from 2,777 middle school teachers indicated that supportive principals, not teacher behavior, promoted trust in the principal. Teacher collegiality, not principal behavior, fostered trust among colleagues.
Tarter, C. J. (1995). Middle School Climate, Faculty Trust, and Effectiveness: A Path Analysis. Journal of Research and development in Education, 29(1), 41-49.
This article highlights a framework of general phases and specific steps for di usion of major new approaches across a school district. The overlapping phases are seen as encompassing: (a) creating readiness, (b) initial implementation, (c) institutionalization, and (d) ongoing evolution. The discussion includes lessons learned in applying the framework.
Taylor, Perry Nelson, Howard S. Adelman, L. (1999). Scaling-up reforms across a school district. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 15(4), 303-325.
Even when schools within a system reflect closely the demands of their progenitor and achieve both the appearance and reality of a high degree of similarity, differences do exist. The organizational climate of schools is one such difference.
Thomas, A. R. (1976). The organizational climate of schools. International Review of Education, 22(4), 441-463.
This chapter presents the conceptual and operational underpinnings of a problem-solving special education system designed to improve educational results for students with disabilities.
Tilly, W. D. III. (2002). Best Practices in School Psychology as a Problem-Solving Enterprise. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology IV (pp. 21-36). Washington, DC, US: National Association of School Psychologists.
This paper discusses four types of violence then briefly review the risk literature in order to highlight promising targets for intervention. Then the authors organize their review of the efficacy of specific approaches by the specific level targeted.
Tolan, P., & Guerra, N. (1994). What works in reducing adolescent violence. An empirical review of the field boulde.-CO: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence.
Of Edward Tufte’s books, this is the most design oriented. It provides examples using maps, charts, scientific presentations, diagrams, computer interfaces, statistical graphics and tables, stereo photographs, guidebooks, courtroom exhibits, timetables, use of color, and a pop-up to illustrate his points on the effective use of visual mediums to communicate the meaning of data and impart important messages.
Tufte, E. R. (1990). Envisioning Information (1990). Cheshire, CT: Graphics press.
This is the first book from Edward Tufte and it lays out his theories and rules that are the basis for the effective display of information and data to maximize communication.
Tufte, E. R. (2001). The visual display of quantitative information. Edition 2 (Vol. 2). Cheshire, CT: Graphics press.
This third book by Edward Tufte is a guide on how to more effectively communicate information visually. It offers examples of poorly presented information and the dire consequences that can result from mediocre and inadequately thought out presentations. It provides concrete samples of effective ways to present statistics and tips one can use to avoid many of the pitfalls of powerpoint presentations.
Tufte, E. R., & Weise Moeller, E. (1997). Visual explanations: images and quantities, evidence and narrative (Vol. 36). Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
This text offers a pragmatic assessment of the role of police and school crime through the perspective of esteemed academicians and practitioners. School Crime and Policing hopes to spark awareness and encourage preparedness for the safety of our schools and our communities.
Turk, W. L. (Ed.). (2004). School crime and policing. Prentice Hall.
This report, the first Surgeon General's report on youth violence in the United States, summarizes an extensive body of research and seeks to clarify seemingly contradictory trends, such as the discrepancies noted above between official records of youth violence and young people's self-reports of violent behaviors.
U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General—Executive Summary. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Service; and National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health.
This Twenty-second Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) marks the 25th anniversary of the passage of P.L. 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975.
US Department of Education. (2000). Twenty-second annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
The purpose of the conference was to engage a group of citizens in a thoughtful, meaningful dialogue about issues of prevention, identification, recognition, and referral of children with mental health needs to appropriate, evidence-based treatments or services.
US Department of Health and Human Services. (2000). Report of the Surgeon General's Conference on Children's Mental Health: A national action agenda.
This book offers concrete examples from educational testing to illustrate the importance of empirically and logically scrutinizing the evidence used to make education policy decisions. Wainer uses statistical evidence to show why some of the most widely held beliefs in education may be wrong.
Wainer, H. (2011). Uneducated guesses: Using evidence to uncover misguided education policies. Princeton University Press.
This text provides practical guidelines and techniques for effectively managing acting out behavior in elementary students. It attempts to characterize acting-out behavior in the context of schooling; describe what is known about coping effectively with it; and illustrate applications of successful interventions.
Walker, H. M. (1995). The acting-out child: Coping with classroom disruption. Sopris West, 1140 Boston Ave., Longmont, CO 80501.
This article provides a reconceptualization of the role of schools in preventing antisocial behavior problems among children and youth.
Walker, H. M., Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., Bullis, M., Sprague, J. R., Bricker, D., & Kaufman, M. J. (1996). Integrated approaches to preventing antisocial behavior patterns among school-age children and youth. Journal of emotional and behavioral disorders, 4(4), 194-209.
This classic in the literature of child violence and antisocial behavior has been updated to include coverage of the most recent and important school safety, prevention, and universal intervention programs.
Walker, H. M., Ramsey, E., & Gresham, F. M. (2004). Antisocial behavior in school: Evidence based practices. Belmont, CA: Thomson.
Weist, M. D., & Christodulu, K. V. (2000). Expanded school mental health programs: Advancing reform and closing the gap between research and practice. Journal of School Health, 70(5), 195-200.
The authors discuss the growing movement in the United States to develop expanded school mental health programs. These programs represent partnerships between schools and community mental health agencies to expand the range of mental health services provided by schools.
Weist, M. D., Lowie, J. A., Flaherty, L. T., & Pruitt, D. (2001). Collaboration among the education, mental health, and public health systems to promote youth mental health. Psychiatric Services, 52(10), 1348-1351.
This paper review findings bearing on the efficacy of psychosocial treatments and medications under controlled experimental conditions. It also reports evidence, where available, on the effectiveness of both classes of treatment with clinically referred youth treated in real-world clinical contexts.
Weisz, J. R., & Jensen, P. S. (1999). Efficacy and effectiveness of child and adolescent psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy. Mental Health Services Research, 1(3), 125-157.
Developed by the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS), this report presents current weaknesses in the education of students with learning problems (those having difficulties learning for any of a variety of reasons) and suggested strategies for correcting those weaknesses.
Will, M. C. (1986). Educating children with learning problems: A shared responsibility. Exceptional children, 52(5), 411-415.