Education Drivers

Corrective Feedback

Corrective feedback is a form of performance feedback used to improve student achievement. Teachers provide feedback to students to reinforce expectations and to correct student errors during lessons. Feedback is often noted as the single most powerful tool available for improving student performance, and more than seven meta-analyses conducted since 1980 support this claim. Classroom teachers use corrective feedback as a teaching technique every day. The feedback may be as simple as giving praise, returning assignments the next day, immediately correcting student misconceptions, or as a component of active student responding. Other effective strategies rely on peer review or self-assessment to increase feedback. For the best results, feedback must meet these four conditions: (1) It is objective, reliable, measureable, and specific; (2) it provides information about what was done well, what needs improvement, and how to improve; (3) it is delivered frequently and immediately following performance; and (4) it is about performance rather than personal characteristics.

Corrective Feedback Overview

Corrective Feedback PDF

Guinness, K., Detrich, R., Keyworth, R. & States, J. (2020). Overview of Corrective Feedback. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. https://www.winginstitute.org/instructional-delivery-feedback

Students will inevitably make errors as they learn new skills. How educators respond to errors is critical for creating a positive learning environment while optimizing instructional efficacy. Corrective feedback is a powerful tool for addressing errors and solidifying expectations. Properties of corrective feedback such as content, timing, and mode of delivery can all affect student learning.

What Is Corrective Feedback?

Corrective or formative feedback is defined as “information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify his or her thinking or behavior for the purpose of improving learning” (Shute, 2008, p. 154). For example, in response to an algebraic error with order of operations, the teacher may say, “Remember, do the parentheses first.” Although several terms are used to refer to this type of feedback in the literature, this overview uses the term “corrective feedback.” This is distinguished from performance feedback or knowledge of results, which involves simply telling the student about their performance; for example, “That’s incorrect” or “You answered 5 out of 7 questions correctly.” (Jaehnig & Miller, 2007).

Forms of Corrective Feedback

Corrective feedback can take a variety of forms ranging from simple to complex.

Correct answer feedback involves simply providing the student with the correct answer. In oral reading instruction, this type of feedback can be further distinguished as word supply (providing the correct word following an error) and phonetic emphasis (providing one sound at a time) (Heubusch & Lloyd, 1998). Multiple studies have demonstrated that supplying the whole word is more effective than phonetic emphasis in reducing errors (Espin & Deno, 1989; Spaai, Ellerman, & Reitsma, 1991).

Error flagging involves highlighting where an error occurred when the student’s response includes multiple components, such as in mathematics instruction (e.g., Narciss & Huth, 2006).

Elaboration/explanation involves providing additional information, hints, or prompts, and may or may not include correct answer feedback or error flagging. Collins, Carnine, and Gersten (1987) compared the effects of basic and elaborated corrective feedback on the acquisition of reasoning skills in a series of computerized lessons. High school students with reading challenges (learning disabled and remedial) were randomly assigned to the basic feedback group or the elaborated feedback group. In the basic feedback group, if an error occurred, students were simply told the correct answer. In the elaborated feedback group, if an error occurred, students were told the correct answer with an explanation of why the answer was correct. Students in the elaborated feedback group demonstrated greater improvements from pre- to posttest (average 26% correct to average 78% correct) than the basic feedback group (average 30% correct to average 66% correct), and performed better on a maintenance assessment (average 81% correct) than the basic feedback group (57% correct). In addition, there were no statistically significant differences in the amount of time it took to complete the lessons, indicating that providing elaborated feedback did not increase instructional time.

Similarly, Crowe (2006) compared the effects of two oral reading feedback strategies on the reading comprehension of third, fourth, and fifth grade students with reading challenges. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two feedback groups. In the traditional feedback group, the intervention involved encouraging students to sound out words, dividing words into syllables for decoding, and providing phonemic cues (e.g., two e’s make an eesound). In the communicative reading strategies (CRS) group, the intervention consisted of providing participants with background information prior to reading, encouraging summary of passages, explaining unfamiliar words, emphasizing pronoun references, and using cohesive ties (e.g., “and by…”) to connect ideas. There were no significant differences in scores between the groups during the pretest. On the posttest, the average difference score from the pretest was significantly greater for students in the CRS group (average score of 9.75 with an average 2 point improvement from pretest) than the traditional feedback group (average score of 7.75 with an average 1 point decrease from pretest). Participants in the CRS group also recalled more details on a 2- to 4-day follow-up (averaging 15.13 details) than the traditional feedback group (averaging 7.63 details).

In addition, Van de Kleij, Feskens, and Eggen (2015) conducted a meta-analysis evaluating the effects of elaborated feedback in computerized instruction. Elaborated feedback resulted in larger effect sizes (average 0.49) than knowledge of results (average 0.05) and correct answer feedback (average 0.33). The researchers also noted that the effect sizes for elaborated feedback were larger for higher order learning outcomes (average 0.59), or when students were required to apply what they learned in a novel situation, than for lower order learning outcomes (average 0.31), such as assessing a student’s vocabulary. This suggests that elaborated feedback is particularly important for teaching complex skills.

Student Responding During Corrective Feedback

How students respond to corrective feedback is just as critical as the feedback itself. One option is not to require a response: The teacher provides the corrective feedback, but the student is not required to respond. Another option is active student responding (ASR), which asks the student to repeat the correct answer after the teacher provides it. Drevno et al. (1994) evaluated the effects of ASR during error correction on science vocabulary with fourth-grade students. The researchers compared two conditions with the five participants. In the no response (NR) condition, if a student made an error, the teacher modeled the correct answer but did not require the student to respond. In the ASR condition, if a student made an error, the teacher modeled the correct answer and required the student to repeat the correct answer before moving on. Overall, the participants responded with greater accuracy in the ASR condition than the NR condition on several measures, including same-day tests (average 49% ASR; average 32% NR), next-day tests (average 42% ASR; average 29% NR), and end-of-study maintenance (average 42% ASR; average 24% NR).

A variation on ASR is sentence repeat. In oral reading instruction, if a student reads a word incorrectly, they are asked to repeat the correct answer, finish the sentence, and then reread the entire sentence (Heubusch & Lloyd, 1998). Singh (1990) compared the effects of word supply and sentence repeat error correction strategies on oral reading errors. The participants were three students (two female, one male) aged 13-15 years with reading levels of 7-9 years. They experienced three conditions in an alternating treatment design. In the word supply condition, if an error occurred, the teacher told the student the correct word, then had the student repeat it one time. In the sentence repeat condition, if an error occurred, the teacher told the student the correct word and then had the student repeat it one time, read to the end of the sentence, and reread the entire sentence. Across all three participants, the sentence repeat strategy resulted in the greatest decrease in errors (averaging 4.8 errors) from baseline (averaging 9.1 errors). The word supply strategy also resulted in decreased errors (averaging 6.6 errors), but to a lesser degree than sentence repeat.

Feedback Timing

The effects of providing feedback immediately versus after a delay have long been a subject of investigation; however, the results are inconsistent. Barbetta, Heward, Bradley, and Miller (1994) examined the effects of immediate and delayed feedback on the acquisition and maintenance of sight words by students with developmental disabilities. In the immediate feedback condition, if the student made an error, the teacher immediately said, “No, the word is ____. What word?” (p. 177). In the delayed feedback condition, if the student made an error, the teacher said, “No, we’ll try this word later” (p. 177). After all words were presented, the teacher returned to each word on which the student made an error, provided the correct answer, and asked the student to repeat the word. Across all four participants, students produced 44% more correct answers with immediate feedback than with delayed feedback. Also, all four participants maintained more words learned with immediate feedback (average 85%) than with delayed feedback (average 67%).

Fyfe and Rittle-Johnson (2016) evaluated the effects of providing immediate and summative corrective feedback in a computerized program on mathematics problem solving with second graders. Students were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: no feedback, immediate feedback, and summative feedback. In the no feedback group, after completing each problem, no feedback was provided, and participants were only instructed to click when they were ready for the next problem. In the immediate feedback group, participants received correct-answer feedback after completing each problem. In the summative feedback group, participants received correct-answer feedback after all 12 problems were completed. In both feedback conditions, the correct answer was provided without an evaluation of the student’s response (i.e., students were required to compare their answers to the answers provided to determine if they responded correctly or incorrectly). Both feedback conditions resulted in greater accuracy on posttest problems that closely resembled the training problems (immediate feedback averaged 88%, summative feedback averaged 85%) than no feedback (averaged 72% accuracy). On posttest problems that incorporated novel features, however, immediate feedback resulted in higher accuracy (average 83%) than summative feedback (average 70%) and no feedback (average 58%).

Alternatively, in their meta-analysis of 104 studies, Swart, Nielen, and Sikkema–de Jong (2019) found that, on measures of reading comprehension, providing feedback after reading an entire passage was superior to providing feedback during reading. One explanation for this result is that providing feedback during reading may interrupt the student’s natural reading flow. The best time to provide feedback may vary based on the type of task, and more research is needed in this area. The results of research to date suggest that teachers should provide feedback as soon as is practically possible.

Modes of Feedback Delivery

Teachers may not always be equipped to provide feedback promptly enough, but feedback can be delivered through numerous means besides the teacher.

Computerized Feedback

With the advent of more sophisticated instructional technology, computerized systems of instruction can automatically evaluate a student’s response and provide feedback without mediation from a teacher. Mayfield, Glenn, and Vollmer (2008) evaluated the effects of a self-paced, computerized spelling lesson with systematic corrective feedback on the spelling performance of two sixth-grade students. The computerized lesson played an audio recording of a targeted word and provided an opportunity for the participants to type the word. If the participant typed the word incorrectly, a voice recording said, “Good try. Let’s practice again.” The audio recording of the target word was repeated, and the correct spelling of the word was presented on the screen so the participant could type it while viewing the model. Next, the sequence was repeated with a few letters replaced with blank lines (e.g., for the word “continue,” _ _ ntinue). This process proceeded until only one blank line was presented. Both participants demonstrated low accuracy during baseline (averaging 5% and 13%). After the training was implemented, accuracy increased to high levels (averaging 90% and 96%). At a 3-week follow-up, accuracy decreased slightly for both participants but was still considerably higher than baseline (averaging 80% and 78%).

Computerized feedback can be combined with other intervention components, such as reinforcement. Cullen, Alber-Morgan, Schnell, and Wheaton (2014) evaluated the effects of Headsprout Comprehension, a computerized program involving multiple practice opportunities and immediate feedback. Participants were five fifth graders and one third grader with identified learning disabilities. The intervention involved computerized lessons that presented vocabulary questions. If a participant responded incorrectly, the program indicated that the answer was incorrect, highlighted the correct answer, and provided an explanation as to why the answer was correct. Next, the participant was asked to try the question again. The intervention also included a reinforcement component in which participants earned virtual coins for correct answers that could be traded in for games or videos at the end of the lesson. The researchers used two types of assessments: the Ohio Achievement Assessment (OAA) passage comprehension assessment and the AIMSweb Maze. All participants demonstrated low to moderate scores during baseline on both types of assessments (average 3 out of 13 on OAA, average 10.7 out of 24 on AIMSweb Maze). After the intervention was introduced, assessment scores increased for all participants (average 7.7 out of 13 on OAA, average 15 out of 24 on AIMSweb Maze).

Peer Feedback

Students can also provide corrective feedback to one another. Brakel (1990) evaluated the effects of revision instruction and peer feedback on revision and writing quality with sixth-grade students. The experiment included four groups: revision instruction and peer partners, peer partners only, revision instruction only, and a control group. Revision instruction involved lessons about five specific revision strategies. Peer partners involved meeting with a peer partner to give feedback and revise the writing assignment. The revision instruction plus peer partners produced the highest quality rough drafts and final drafts, closely followed by peer partners only. This study highlights the effectiveness of peer feedback while also demonstrating that instruction on how to deliver feedback can enhance its effectiveness.

Rhymer, Dittmer, Skinner, and Jackson (2000) evaluated the effects of a multicomponent intervention, including multiple forms of feedback, on mathematics fluency with four fourth-grade students. Speed and accuracy were measured while students completed sets of multiplication problems. The intervention package involved students working in pairs, alternating roles of tutor and tutee. The tutor set a timer for 2 minutes and showed flash cards to the tutee. If the tutee responded incorrectly, the tutor supplied the correct answer, then prompted the tutee to write the problem and correct answer three times. Performance feedback was added later in the study: Students were provided with written feedback on their highest number of correct answers per minute, and encouraged to try and beat their previous scores. Three of the four participants demonstrated slight increases in fluency after the intervention package was implemented, and further increases were observed after performance feedback was added.

For two of these three participants, greater gains were observed when they served as the tutee, while the third participant showed similar gains when serving as either tutor or tutee. This suggests that both roles (tutor and tutee) can contribute to learning, though results may differ across students.

Self-Evaluation

Another efficient way to deliver corrective feedback is to have students evaluate their own work. Cover-copy-compare (CCC) is a self-management strategy in which students evaluate and correct their own work. For example, students might view a spelling word, cover the word, write it from memory, then uncover the word and compare it to what they had written (Joseph et al., 2012). Skinner, Belfiore, and Pierce (1992) evaluated the effects of CCC on the acquisition and maintenance of geography facts about Canadian provinces. This low-tech intervention involved a folder with a labeled map on the outside and an unlabeled map on the inside. Students drew an index card with the name of a province, found the province on the labeled map, opened the folder and wrote the name of the province on the unlabeled map, then checked their answers. Participants’ average accuracy was low during baseline (25%), but increased after the intervention was implemented (79%), and maintained at 2 weeks (91%) and 4 weeks (89%) postintervention.

Erion, Davenport, Rodax, Scholl, and Hardy (2009) evaluated the effects of CCC with one versus three repetitions on the spelling accuracy of three second graders and one third grader. Participants were taught three sets of words: one with no intervention (to serve as baseline) and two with CCC. The CCC interventions were identical with the following exception: If an error occurred, participants copied the word correctly either one time or three times. Overall, all participants achieved higher accuracy during acquisition and retention with words taught using CCC than the baseline words. For one of the four participants, accuracy was slightly higher for words taught with three repetitions than with one repetition. However, for the remaining participants, similar levels of accuracy were achieved with both variations of CCC. One way to incorporate this strategy into a multitiered system of support (MTSS) is to start with one repetition and only increase to three repetitions if performance does not improve.

Conclusions and Implications

Corrective feedback provides additional information to learners beyond whether or not their answers were correct, and is critical to the learning process. The complexity of corrective feedback ranges from simply supplying students with correct answers to explaining why an answer was correct or incorrect. When providing corrective feedback, teachers should require students to actively respond (e.g., repeat the correct answer). The optimal time to provide feedback may vary based on the subject and the learning context, but teachers should aim to provide feedback as soon as feasibly possible. Corrective feedback can be delivered through a variety of means beyond the teacher, including computerized feedback, peer feedback, and self-evaluation. Peer feedback programs can have the added benefit of students learning by providing feedback to their classmates, although research shows this may occur with some students but not others. Further, for peer feedback to be effective, students require training on how to deliver effective feedback.

Citations

Barbetta, P. M., Heward, W. L., Bradley, D. M., & Miller, A. D. (1994). Effects of immediate and delayed error correction on the acquisition and maintenance of sight words by students with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(1), 177–178.

Brakel, V. L. (1990). The revising processes of sixth-grade writers with and without peer feedback. Journal of Educational Research, 84(1), 22–29.

Collins, M., Carnine, D., & Gersten, R. (1987). Elaborated corrective feedback and the acquisition of reasoning skills: A study of computer-assisted instruction. Exceptional Children, 54(3), 254–262.

Crowe, L. K. (2005). Comparison of two oral reading feedback strategies in improving reading comprehension of school-age children with low reading ability. Remedial and Special Education, 26(1), 32–42.

Cullen, J. M., Alber-Morgan, S. R., Schnell, S. T., & Wheaton, J. E. (2014). Improving reading skills of students with disabilities using Headsprout Comprehension. Remedial and Special Education, 35(6), 356–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932514534075

Drevno, G. E., Kimball, J. W., Possi, M. K., Heward, W. L., Gardener, R., & Barbetta, P. M. (1994). Effects of active student response during error correction on the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of science vocabulary by elementary students: A systematic replication. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(1), 179–180.

Erion, J., Davenport, C., Rodax, N., Scholl, B., & Hardy, J. (2009). Cover-copy-compare and spelling: One versus three repetitions. Journal of Behavioral Education, 18(4), 319–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-009-9095-4

Espin, C. A., & Deno, S. L. (1989). The effects of modeling and prompting feedback strategies on sight word reading of students labeled learning disabled. Education and Treatment of Children, 12(3), 219–231. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42899110

Fyfe, E. R., & Rittle-Johnson, B. (2016). The benefits of computer-generated feedback for mathematics problem solving. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 147, 140–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2016.03.009

Heubusch, J. D., & Lloyd, J. W. (1998). Corrective feedback in oral reading. Journal of Behavioral Education, 8(1), 63–79.

Jaehnig, W., & Miller, M. L. (2007). Feedback types in programmed instruction: A systematic review. Psychological Record, 57, 219–232.

Joseph, L. M., Konrad, M., Cates, G., Vajcner, T., Eveleigh, E., & Fishley, K. M. (2012). A meta-analytic review of the cover-copy-compare and variations of this self-management procedure. Psychology in the Schools, 49(2), 122–136. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20622

Mayfield, K. H., Glenn, I. M., & Vollmer, T. R. (2008). Teaching spelling through prompting and review procedures using computer-based instruction. Journal of Behavioral Education, 17(3), 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-008-9069-y

Narciss, S., & Huth, K. (2006). Fostering achievement and motivation with bug-related tutoring feedback in a computer-based training for written subtraction. Learning and Instruction, 16(4), 310–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.07.003

Rhymer, K. N., Dittmer, K. I., Skinner, C. H., & Jackson, B. (2000). Effectiveness of a multi-component treatment for improving mathematics fluency. School Psychology Quarterly, 15(1), 40-51.

Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153-189. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654307313795

Singh, N. N. (1990). Effects of two error-correction procedures on oral reading errors: Word supply versus sentence repeat. Behavior Modification, 14(2), 188-199.

Skinner, C. H., Belfiore, P. J., & Pierce, N. (1992). Cover, copy, and compare: Increasing geography accuracy in students with behavior disorders. School Psychology Review, 21(1), 73–81.

Spaai, G. W. G., Ellermann, H. H., & Reitsma, P. (1991). Effects of segmented and whole-word sound feedback on learning to read single words. Journal of Educational Research, 84(4), 204-213. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40539686

Swart, E. K., Nielen, T. M. J., & Sikkema–de Jong, M. T. (2019). Supporting learning from text: A meta-analysis on the timing and content of effective feedback. Educational Research Review, 28, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100296

Van der Kleij, F. M., Feskens, R. C. W., & Eggen, T. J. H. M. (2015). Effects of feedback in a computer-based learning environment on students’ learning outcomes: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 85(4), 475-511. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654314564881

Publications

TITLE
SYNOPSIS
CITATION
Teacher Coaching Overview

The purpose of this overview is to provide information about teacher coaching as it is used in schools, the research that examines this practice as a method of teacher professional development, and its impact on student outcomes.

 

Cleaver, S., Detrich, R. & States, J. (2018). Overview of Teacher Evaluation. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. https://www.winginstitute.org/teacher-evaluation-teacher-coaching.

 

Performance Feedback Overview

This overview examines the current understanding of research on performance feedback as a way to improve teacher performance and student outcomes. 

Cleaver, S., Detrich, R. & States, J. (2019). Overview of Performance Feedback. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. https://www.winginstitute.org/teacher-evaluation-feedback.

Teaching Functional Life Skills to Children with Developmental Disabilities

In this chapter we describe systematic instructional practices that are necessary for individuals with disabilities to benefit from educational services.

Detrich, R., & Higbee, T. S. (2009). Teaching Functional Life Skills to Children with Developmental Disabilities. Practical Handbook of School Psychology: Effective Practices for the 21st Century, 371.

Improving Educational Outcomes in America: Can A Low-Tech, Generic Teaching Practice Make A Difference

Heward and Wood consider a range of instructional practices that were identified by participants of the eighth Wing Institute summit and make an argument that Active Student Responding (ASR) has the potential to significantly improve student learning. The authors consider ASR in the context of the positive benefits and the cost considerations including equipment/materials, training, logistical fit, and the fit with the teacher's belief about effective instruction.

Heward, W.L. & Wood, C.L. (2015). Improving Educational Outcomes in America: Can A Low-Tech, Generic Teaching Practice Make A Difference Retrieved from ../../uploads/docs/2013WingSummitWH.pdf.

Active Student Responding (ASR)

Active Student Responding (ASR) is a strategy designed to engage all students regardless of class size. ASR avoids the common problem of having only high achievers answer questions while low achievers remain silent, thus escaping detection. ASR strategies include; guided notes, response slates, response cards, and choral responding.

States, J., Detrich, R. & Keyworth, R. (2019). Active Student Responding (ASR) Overview.Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. https://www.winginstitute.org/instructional-delivery-student-respond

 

Data Mining

TITLE
SYNOPSIS
CITATION
How does class size reduction measure up to other common educational interventions in a cost-benefit analysis?

This analysis examined the cost effectiveness of research from Stuart Yeh on common sturctural interventions in education. Additionally, The Wing Institute analyzes class-size reduction using Yeh's methods.

States, J. (2009). How does class size reduction measure up to other common educational interventions in a cost-benefit analysis? Retrieved from how-does-class-size.

Does a longer school year or longer school day improve student achievement scores?

This reviews looks at the issue, do longer school days and longer school years improve student achievement?

States, J. (2011). Does a longer school year or longer school day improve student achievement scores? Retrieved from does-longer-school-year.

What Practices Make a Difference in the Classroom?
This analysis examines meta-analyses to identify teaching practices that have the greatest impact on student achievement.
States, J. (2011). What Practices Make a Difference in the Classroom? Retrieved from what-practices-make-difference.
What teaching strategies make a difference in improving student performance?
This analysis looks at meta-analyses on teaching strategies that have the largest effect on student achievement.
States, J. (2011). What teaching strategies make a difference in improving student performance? Retrieved from what-teaching-strategies-make.

 

Presentations

TITLE
SYNOPSIS
CITATION
Effective Teaching Practices: Narrowing the Field
This paper distills the research on effective teaching practices to basic assumptions and core practices. It presents a impact-cost paradigm for rating and prioritizing such practices.
Heward, W. (2013). Effective Teaching Practices: Narrowing the Field [Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from 2013-wing-presentation-william-heward.
TITLE
SYNOPSIS
CITATION
ACHIEVEMENT AND ENROLLMENT STATUS OF SUSPENDED STUDENTS: Outcomes in a Large, Multicultural School District

This article presents the results of longitudinal retrospective analyses on suspensions, achievement, and long-term enrollment status of students in a large, urban school district. Findings indicated that suspended students had substantially lower presuspension achievement than did students in the comparison group, gained considerably less academically throughout 3 years with suspensions, and had high drop-out rates.

Arcia, E. (2006). Achievement and enrollment status of suspended students: Outcomes in a large, multicultural school district. Education and Urban Society38(3), 359-369.

Using active responding to reduce disruptive behavior in a general education classroom

Active responding (in the form of response cards) was employed during a math lecture in a third-grade classroom to evaluate its effect on disruptive behavior.

 

Armendariz, F., & Umbreit, J. (1999). Using active responding to reduce disruptive behavior in a general education classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1(3), 152–158.

Increasing Active Student Responding and Improving Academic Performance Through Classwide Peer Tutoring

Classwide Peer Tutoring is a powerful instructional procedure that actively engages all students in a classroom and that promotes mastery, accuracy, and fluency in content learning for students with and without disabilities. The purpose of this article is to discuss Classwide Peer Tutoring as an effective instructional procedure.

Arreaga-Mayer, C. (1998). Increasing active student responding and improving academic performance through classwide peer tutoring. Intervention in School and Clinic, 34(2), 89-94.

Effects of active student response during error correction on the acquisition and maintenance of geography facts by elementary students with learning disabilities.

This study compares the effects of Active Student Response error correction and No Response (NR) error correction during.

Barbetta, P. M., & Heward, W. L. (1993). Effects of active student response during error correction on the acquisition and maintenance of geography facts by elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 3(3), 217-233.

Effects of immediate and delayed error correction on the acquisition and maintenance of sight words by students with developmental disabilities

We compared immediate and delayed error correction during sight-word instruction with 5 students with developmental disabilities. Whole-word error correction immediately followed each error for words in the immediate condition. In the delayed condition, whole-word error correction was provided at the end of each session's three practice rounds. Immediate error correction was superior on each of the four dependent variables.

Barbetta, P. M., Heward, W. L., Bradley, D. M., & Miller, A. D. (1994). Effects of immediate and delayed error correction on the acquisition and maintenance of sight words by students with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis27(1), 177-178.

Beyond Monet: The artful science of instructional integration.

This book delivers teaching practice highlights and some strategies introduced in schools to give educators, evaluators, and researchers comprehensive evidence found on the best instructional strategies schools could use to improve student outcomes significantly.

Bennett, B., Rolheiser, C., & Normore, A. H. (2003). Beyond monet: The artful science of instructional integration. Alberta Journal of Educational Research49(4), 383.

The half-full glass: A review of research on teaching.

This paper is a research review which explores factors that can be controlled or influenced by teachers and that are known to affect student behavior, attitudes, and achievement. Pre-instructional factors include decisions about content, time allocation, pacing, grouping, and activity structures. 

Berliner, D. C. (1984). The half-full glass: A review of research on teaching.

Assessing the value-added effects of literary collaborative professional development on student learning.

This article reports on a 4-year longitudinal study of the effects of Literacy Collaborative (LC), a schoolwide reform model that relies primarily on the oneon-one coaching of teachers as a lever for improving student literacy learning.

Biancarosa, G., Bryk, A. S., & Dexter, E. R. (2010). Assessing the value-added effects of literacy collaborative professional development on student learning. The elementary school journal111(1), 7-34.

Classwide peer tutoring: An effective strategy for students with emotional and behavioral disorders.

This paper discuss ClasWide Peer Tutoring as an effective strategy for Student with Emotional and Behavioral Disorder

Bowman-Perrott, L. (2009). Classwide peer tutoring: An effective strategy for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Intervention in School and Clinic44(5), 259-267.

Differences in the note-taking skills of students with high achievement, average achievement, and learning disabilities

In this study, the note-taking skills of middle school students with LD were compared to peers with average and high achievement. The results indicate differences in the number and type of notes recorded between students with LD and their peers and differences in test performance of lecture content.

Boyle, J. R., & Forchelli, G. A. (2014). Differences in the note-taking skills of students with high achievement, average achievement, and learning disabilities. Learning and Individual Differences35, 9-14.

Further investigation of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior without extinction for escape-maintained destructive behavior

Previous research indicates that manipulating dimensions of reinforcement during differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) for situations in which extinction cannot be implemented is a potential approach for treating destructive behavior.

Briggs, A. M., Dozier, C. L., Lessor, A. N., Kamana, B. U., & Jess, R. L. (2019). Further investigation of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior without extinction for escape‐maintained destructive behavior. Journal of applied behavior analysis52(4), 956-973.

Effects of preprinted response cards on rates of academic response, opportunities to respond, and correct academic responses of students with mild intellectual disability.

This study examines the effect of using preprinted response cards on academic responding, opportunities to respond, and correct academic responses of students with mild intellectual disability.

Cakiroglu, O. (2014). Effects of preprinted response cards on rates of academic response, opportunities to respond, and correct academic responses of students with mild intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability39(1), 73-85.

Culturally responsive classrooms for culturally diverse students with and at risk for disabilities.

This article discusses culturally responsive classrooms for Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students with and at risk for disabilities within the context of culturally competent teachers, culturally effective instructional principles, and culturally appropriate behavior development. It discusses implications for educators and suggestions for a future agenda

Cartledge, G., & Kourea, L. (2008). Culturally responsive classrooms for culturally diverse students with and at risk for disabilities. Exceptional children74(3), 351-371.

Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.

A meta-analysis of the distributed practice effect was performed to illuminate the effects of temporal variables that have been neglected in previous reviews. This review found 839 assessments of distributed practice in 317 experiments located in 184 articles.

Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological bulletin132(3), 354.

The teacher’s craft: The ten essential skills of effective teaching

The author argues that there is a body of evidence that shows quite clearly how to teach so that students will learn far more than they are learning today. This reader-friendly volume provides evidence-based principles of effective teaching.

Chance, P. (2008). The teacher’s craft: The ten essential skills of effective teaching.Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press. 

Struggling First-Grade Readers: The Frequency and Progress of Their Reading.

The oral reading of 65 first-graders experiencing difficulties in beginning reading was observed during primary reading instructional time. Findings indicate most instruction for struggling readers was not aligned with recent research on preventing reading difficulties, and even struggling readers receiving reading instruction aligned with best practices are making minimal progress. 

Chard, D. J., & Kameenui, E. J. (2000). Struggling first-grade readers: The frequency and progress of their reading. The Journal of Special Education34(1), 28-38.

The effects of using response cards on student participation, academic achievement, and on-task behavior during whole-class, math instruction.

This study evaluated the effects of using response cards during whole-group math instruction in a fourth-grade classroom, using an ABA research design. 

Christle, C. A., & Schuster, J. W. (2003). The effects of using response cards on student participation, academic achievement, and on-task behavior during whole-class, math instruction. Journal of Behavioral Education12(3), 147-165.

Performance Feedback Overview

This overview examines the current understanding of research on performance feedback as a way to improve teacher performance and student outcomes. 

Cleaver, S., Detrich, R. & States, J. (2019). Overview of Performance Feedback. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. https://www.winginstitute.org/teacher-evaluation-feedback.

Meta-Analysis of Mathematic Basic-Fact Fluency Interventions: A Component Analysis

Mathematics fluency is a critical component of mathematics learning yet few attempts have been made to synthesize this research base. Seventeen single-case design studies with 55 participants were reviewed using meta-analytic procedures.

Codding, R. S., Burns, M. K., & Lukito, G. (2011). Meta‐analysis of mathematic basic‐fact fluency interventions: A component analysis. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice26(1), 36-47.

Effects of immediate performance feedback on implementation of behavior support plans, 2005

The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of feedback on treatment integrity for implementing behavior support plans.

Codding, R. S., Feinberg, A. B., Dunn, E. K., & Pace, G. M. (2005). Effects of immediate performance feedback on implementation of behavior support plans. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 38(2), 205-219.

Elaborated corrective feedback and the acquisition of reasoning skills: A study of computer-assisted instruction

The study compared basic and elaborated corrections within the context of otherwise identical computer-assisted instruction (CAI) programs that taught reasoning skills. Twelve learning disabled and 16 remedial high school students were randomly assigned to either the basic-corrections or elaborated-corrections treatment. Criterion-referenced test scores were significantly higher for the elaborated-corrections treatment on both the post and maintenance tests and on the transfer test. Time to complete the program did not differ significantly for the two groups.

Collins, M., Carnine, D., & Gersten, R. (1987). Elaborated corrective feedback and the acquisition of reasoning skills: A study of computer-assisted instruction. Exceptional Children54(3), 254-262.

Impact of the script in a supplemental reading program on instructional opportunities for student practice of specified skills

This study sought to investigate the impact of a supplemental program’s script on the rate of on-task and off-task instructional opportunities offered by the instructor for students to practice the specific skills targeted in lesson exercises.

Cooke, N. L., Galloway, T. W., Kretlow, A. G., & Helf, S. (2011). Impact of the script in a supplemental reading program on instructional opportunities for student practice of specified skills. The Journal of Special Education45(1), 28-42.

Effect of response practice variables on learning spelling and sight vocabulary

Four experiments were conducted to examine variables associated with response practice as an instructional technique for individuals with intellectual disabilities. The results showed that the cover procedure generally did not enhance performance over and above that produced by practice alone, and written practice generally was not superior to oral practice.

Cuvo, A. J., Ashley, K. M., Marso, K. J., Zhang, B. L., & Fry, T. A. (1995). Effect of response practice variables on learning spelling and sight vocabulary. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis28(2), 155-173.

Ideologies, practices, and their implications for special education.

The articles in this special issue suggest that a focus upon specific educational practices has far mor e potential for advancing the field o f special (and general) education than an emphasis upon philosophies, metatheories, theories, or psychological schools that we will refer to as ideologies.

Dixon, R., & Carnine, D. (1994). Ideologies, practices, and their implications for special education. The Journal of Special Education28(3), 356-367.

Getting beneath the veil of effective schools: Evidence from New York City

This paper examines data on 39 charter schools and correlates these data with school effectiveness. We find that class size, per-pupil expenditure, teacher certification, and teacher training—are not correlated with school effectiveness. In stark contrast, we show that frequent teacher feedback, the use of data to guide instruction, high-dosage tutoring, increased instructional time, and high expectations—explains approximately 45 percent of the variation in school effectiveness.

Dobbie, W., & Fryer Jr, R. G. (2013). Getting beneath the veil of effective schools: Evidence from New York City. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 5(4), 28-60.

A Meta-Analytic Review Of The Distribution Of Practice Effect: Now You See It, Now You Don't

This meta-analysis reviews 63 studies on the relationship between conditions of massed practice and spaced practice with respect to task performance, which yields an overall mean weighted effect size of 0.46.

Donovan, J. J., & Radosevich, D. J. (1999). A meta-analytic review of the distribution of practice effect: Now you see it, now you don't. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(5), 795.

Effects of active student response during error correction on the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of science vocabulary by elementary students: A systematic replication

We compared active student response (ASR) error correction and no-response (NR) error correction while teaching science terms to 5 elementary students. When a student erred on ASR terms, the teacher modeled the definition and the student repeated it. When a student erred on NR terms, the teacher modeled the definition while the student looked at the vocabulary card. ASR error correction was superior on each of the study's seven dependent variables.

Drevno, G. E., Kimball, J. W., Possi, M. K., Heward, W. L., Gardener, R., & Barbetta, P. M. (1994). Effects of active student response during error correction on the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of science vocabulary by elementary students: A systematic replication. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(1), 179–180.

Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology

The language of life as well as of science in attributing a memory to the mind attempts to point out the facts and their interpretation 

Ebbinghaus, H. (2013). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. Annals of Neurosciences, 20(4), 155–156. 

Effective Teaching Principles and the Design of Quality Tools for Educators

This monograph presents a synthesis of the literature on empirically supported effective teaching principles that have been derived from research on behavioral, cognitive, social-learning, and other theories.

Ellis, E. S., Worthington, L. A., & Larkin, M. J. (1994). research synthesis on effective teaching principles and the design of quality tools for educators.(Tech. Rep. No. 6). Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators.

Promoting teachers’ implementation of culturally and contextually relevant class-wide behavior plans

Research suggests students of differing racial groups are unequally impacted by school disciplinary interventions. This study examines whether teachers who self-assessed their own use of culturally and contextually relevant practices would implement a class-wide behavior plan with high levels of implementation fidelity. Results indicated that teachers who engaged in self-assessment and training did implement the plan with high levels of implementation fidelity, particularly when given performance feedback.

 

Fallon, L. M., Cathcart, S. C., DeFouw, E. R., O’Keeffe, B. V., & Sugai, G. Promoting teachers’ implementation of culturally and contextually relevant class‐wide behavior plans. Psychology in the Schools.

Effective use of the gradual release of responsibility model

This evidence on effective literacy teaching, which includes small group instruction, differentiation, and a response to intervention, presents a challenge for many teachers and schools.

Fisher, D. (2008). Effective use of the gradual release of responsibility model. Author Monographs, 1­–4. 

Implementation Research: A Synthesis of the Literature

This is a comprehensive literature review of the topic of Implementation examining all stages beginning with adoption and ending with sustainability.

Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., & Friedman, R. M. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature.

Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics

This meta-analysis examined the impact of lecturing as compared to active methods of instruction on learning and course performance. The effect sizes indicate that on average, student performance on examinations and concept inventories increased by 0.47 SDs under active learning (n = 158 studies), and that the odds ratio for failing was 1.95 under traditional lecturing (n = 67 studies).

Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(23), 8410-8415.

Effects of Systematic Formative Evaluation: A Meta-Analysis

In this meta-analysis of studies that utilize formative assessment the authors report an effective size of .7.

Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (1986). Effects of Systematic Formative Evaluation: A Meta-Analysis. Exceptional Children, 53(3), 199-208.

Nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform: A report to the Nation and the Secretary of Education, United States Department of Education

A report entitled A Nation at Risk was published based on information distilled from commissioned research papers and public hearings. The report contains summaries of the papers and hearings; a list of findings in content, expectations, time, and teaching; a set of recommendations; and aspects of implementation related to con

Gardner, D. P., Larsen, Y. W., Baker, W., Campbell, A., & Crosby, E. A. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform (p. 65). Washington, DC: United States Department of Education.

Beliefs about learning and enacted instructional practices: An investigation in postsecondary chemistry education

Using the teacher‐centered systemic reform model as a framework, the authors explore the connection between chemistry instructors’ beliefs about teaching and learning and self‐efficacy beliefs, and their enacted classroom practices. 

Gibbons, R. E., Villafañe, S. M., Stains, M., Murphy, K. L., & Raker, J. R. (2018). Beliefs about learning and enacted instructional practices: An investigation in postsecondary chemistry education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching55(8), 1111-1133.

Timed Partner Reading and Text Discussion

This paper provides students with an opportunity to improve their reading comprehension and text-based discussion skills. The activity, which can be used with intermediate and advanced learners, is ideal for English language learners in content classes and is particularly useful for building foundational knowledge of a new topic.

Giovacchini, M. (2017). Timed Partner Reading and Text Discussion. In English Teaching Forum (Vol. 55, No. 1, pp. 36-39). US Department of State. Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Office of English Language Programs, SA-5, 2200 C Street NW 4th Floor, Washington, DC 20037.

The effects of three techniques on student participation with preschool children with attending problems.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of three active responding techniques (i.e., hand raising, choral responding, the response card) on student participation and ontask behavior in preschool children with attending problems. 

Godfrey, S. A., Grisham-Brown, J., Schuster, J. W., & Hemmeter, M. L. (2003). The Effects of Three Techniques on Student Participation with Preschool Children with Attending Problems. Education & Treatment of Children26(3).

A survey of principles instructors: Why lecture prevails.

This paper confirms the predominance of lecture and adds to the existing literature by asking why principles instructors have selected their particular teaching methods.

Goffe, W. L., & Kauper, D. (2014). A survey of principles instructors: Why lecture prevails. The Journal of Economic Education45(4), 360-375.

Academic engagement: Current perspectives on research and practice.

A brief perspective is offered on the development and validation of one enabler—engagement in academic responding—and recent findings are provided of an effort to bridge the gap between research and practice by employing this knowledge in Title 1 elementary schools to improve instruction.

Greenwood, C. R., Horton, B. T., & Utley, C. A. (2002). Academic engagement: current perspectives in research and practice. School Psychology Review31(3).

Can comprehension be taught? A quantitative synthesis of “metacognitive” studies

This quantitative review examines 20 studies to establish an effect size of .71 for the impact of “metacognitive” instruction on reading comprehension.

Haller, E. P., Child, D. A., & Walberg, H. J. (1988). Can comprehension be taught? A quantitative synthesis of “metacognitive” studies. Educational researcher, 17(9), 5-8.

Empowering students through speaking round tables

This paper will explain Round Tables, a practical, engaging alternative to the traditional classroom presentation. Round Tables are small groups of students, with each student given a specific speaking role to perform.

Harms, E., & Myers, C. (2013). Empowering students through speaking round tables. Language Education in Asia4(1), 39-59.

The Rise of Universities

The Rise of Universities goes far beyond its central subject to offer a broad description of the social conditions in which universities took root and flourished. 

Haskins, C. H. (2017). The rise of universities. Routledge.

Visible learning

This influential book is the result of 15 years research that includes over 800 meta-analyses on the influences on achievement in school-aged students. This is a great resource for any stakeholder interested in conducting a serious search of evidence behind common models and practices used in schools.

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning. A synthesis of over, 800.

Visible Learning for Teachers: Maximizing Impact on Learning

This book takes over fifteen years of rigorous research into education practices and provides teachers in training and in-service teachers with concise summaries of the most effective interventions and offers practical guidance to successful implementation in classrooms.

Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. Routledge.

Effective use of behavior-specific praise: A middle school case study

Teachers experience high levels of stress and emotional exhaustion while teaching in classrooms with too much student misbehavior. The two teachers in this study expressed concerns about this very issue during math instruction. They were also feeling tired and stressed due to constantly reprimanding students. Fortunately, a simple strategy was used to effectively respond to these challenging behaviors

Haydon, T., & Musti-Rao, S. (2011). Effective use of behavior-specific praise: A middle school case study. Beyond Behavior20(2).

A comparison of three types of opportunities to respond on student academic and social behaviors.

This study employs an alternating treatments design to investigate the effects of three types of opportunities to respond (i.e., individual, choral, and mixed responding) on sight words and syllable practice in six elementary students with behavioral problems.

Haydon, T., Conroy, M. A., Scott, T. M., Sindelar, P. T., Barber, B. R., & Orlando, A. M. (2010). A comparison of three types of opportunities to respond on student academic and social behaviors. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 18(1), 27-40.

A review of the effectiveness of guided notes for students who struggle learning academic content.

The purpose of this article is to examine research on the effectiveness of guided notes. Results indicate that using guided notes has a positive effective on student outcomes, as this practice has been shown to improve accuracy of note taking and student test scores.

Haydon, T., Mancil, G. R., Kroeger, S. D., McLeskey, J., & Lin, W. Y. J. (2011). A review of the effectiveness of guided notes for students who struggle learning academic content. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth55(4), 226-231.

A Comparison of Choral and Individual Responding: A Review of the Literature

This article aimed to review the literature and examine and compare the effects of choral and individual responding. Results indicate a generally positive relationship between using choral responding versus individual responding on student variables such as active student responding, on-task behavior, and correct responses.

Haydon, T., Marsicano, R., & Scott, T. M. (2013). A comparison of choral and individual responding: A review of the literature. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth57(4), 181-188.

Corrective feedback in oral reading

We examined 24 studies to determine the effects on word recognition and reading comprehension of correcting errors during oral reading. Corrective feedback improved students' word reading accuracy on words in lists, and accuracy in reading words in passages. Some correction procedures had greater benefits than others.

Heubusch, J. D., & Lloyd, J. W. (1998). Corrective feedback in oral reading. Journal of Behavioral Education8(1), 63-79.

Three "low-tech" strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction.

ASR [active student response] can be defined as an observable response made to an instructional antecedent / [compare ASR] to other measures of instructional time and student engagement / 3 benefits of increasing the frequency of ASR during instruction are discussed.

Heward, W. L. (1994). Three" low-tech" strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction.

Ten faulty notions about teaching and learning that hinder the effectiveness of special education.

This article discusses 10 such notions that the author believes limit the effectiveness of special education by impeding the adoption of research-based instructional practices.

Heward, W. L. (2003). Ten faulty notions about teaching and learning that hinder the effectiveness of special education. The journal of special education36(4), 186-205.

Want to improve the effectiveness of your lectures? Try guided notes

This paper briefly discuss some pros and con of lecturing as a teaching method, describe how a strategy called "guided notes" can make lecturing more effective, and offer some specific suggestions for developing and using guided notes.

Heward, W. L. (2004). Want to improve the effectiveness of your lectures? Try guided notes. Talking About Teaching.

Exceptional Children: An Introduction To Special Education.

This book for teachers in the area of Special Education looks at highly effective, research-based practices described in a very step-by-step, applied manner.

Heward, W. L. (2012). Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education. Pearson.

Using choral responding to increase active student response.

There are numerous practical strategies for increasing active student response during group instruction. One of these strategies, Choral Responding, is the subject of this article. 

Heward, W. L., Courson, F. H., & Narayan, J. S. (1989). Using choral responding to increase active student response. Teaching Exceptional Children21(3), 72-75.

Teacher and student behaviors in the contexts of grade-level and instructional grouping

This study aimed to examine active instruction and engagement across elementary, middle, and high schools using a large database of direct classroom observations. 

Hollo, A., & Hirn, R. G. (2015). Teacher and student behaviors in the contexts of grade-level and instructional grouping. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth59(1), 30-39.

Feedback types in programmed instruction: A systematic review

Research about the effectiveness of different types of feedback in programmed instruction was investigated. Knowledge of results had the least data to support its efficacy. Knowledge of correct responding (KCR) has been shown to be effective in several studies.

Jaehnig, W., & Miller, M. L. (2007). Feedback types in programmed instruction: A systematic review. The psychological record57(2), 219-232.

The effect of active student responding during computer-assisted instruction on social studies learning by students with learning disabilities.

An alternating treatments design with a best treatments phase was used to compare two active student response (ASR) conditions and one on-task (OT) condition on the acquisition and maintenance of social studies facts during computer-assisted instruction.

Jerome, A., & Barbetta, P. M. (2005). The effect of active student responding during computer-assisted instruction on social studies learning by students with learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology20(3), 13-23.

A meta-analytic review of the cover-copy-compare and variations of this self-management procedure.

Studies that examined copy-cover-compare (CCC) and variations of this procedure were reviewed and analyzed. This review revealed a substantial number of studies that validated the use of CCC across spelling and math skills and across students with and without disabilities.

Joseph, L. M., Konrad, M., Cates, G., Vajcner, T., Eveleigh, E., & Fishley, K. M. (2012). A meta‐analytic review of the cover‐copy‐compare and variations of this self‐management procedure. Psychology in the Schools49(2), 122-136.

The Effects of Feedback Interventions on Performance: A Historical Review, a Meta-Analysis, and a Preliminary Feedback Intervention Theory

The authors proposed a preliminary FI theory (FIT) and tested it with moderator analyses. The central assumption of FIT is that FIs change the locus of attention among 3 general and hierarchically organized levels of control: task learning, task motivation, and meta-tasks (including self-related) processes.

Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological bulletin119(2), 254.

Using Guided Notes to Enhance Instruction for All Students

The purpose of this article is to provide teachers with several suggestions for creating and using guided notes to enhance other effective teaching methods, support students’ studying, and promote higher order thinking.

Konrad, M., Joseph, L. M., & Itoi, M. (2011). Using guided notes to enhance instruction for all students. Intervention in school and clinic46(3), 131-140.

Effect of think-pair-share in a large CS1 class: 83% sustained engagement.

Think-Pair-Share (TPS) is a classroom-based active learning strategy, in which students work on a problem posed by the instructor, first individually, then in pairs, and finally as a classwide discussion. This study investigate the quantity and quality of student engagement in a large CS1 class during the implementation of TPS activities.

Kothiyal, A., Majumdar, R., Murthy, S., & Iyer, S. (2013, August). Effect of think-pair-share in a large CS1 class: 83% sustained engagement. In Proceedings of the ninth annual international ACM conference on International computing education research (pp. 137-144). ACM.

Using in-service and coaching to increase kindergarten teachers’ accurate delivery of group instructional units.

This study examined the effects of in-service support plus coaching on kindergarten teachers’ accurate delivery of group instructional units in math.

Kretlow, A. G., Wood, C. L., & Cooke, N. L. (2011). Using in-service and coaching to increase kindergarten teachers’ accurate delivery of group instructional units. The Journal of Special Education44(4), 234-246.

Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices.

This paper provides a review of the theoretical discussions and practical studies relating to fluency instruction and reading development.

Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of educational psychology95(1), 3.

Effects of response cards on disruptive behavior and academic responding during math lessons by fourth-grade urban students.

The authors evaluated the effects of response cards on the disruptive behavior and academic responding of students in two urban fourth-grade classrooms.

Lambert, M. C., Cartledge, G., Heward, W. L., & Lo, Y. Y. (2006). Effects of response cards on disruptive behavior and academic responding during math lessons by fourth-grade urban students. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions8(2), 88-99.

The Birth and Death Cycles of Educational innovations

A study of 27 promising programs reveals 8 common reasons that educational innovations fail, including disenchanted practitioners; departure of innovation supporters; lack of personnel training; disappearing funding; inadequate supervision; and lack of accountability, administrative support, and termination consequences. Innovations succeed by avoiding overload, complementing school mission, and securing board approval

Latham, G. (1988). The birth and death cycles of educational innovations. Principal68(1), 41-43.

Headsprout Early Reading: Reliably teaching children to read.

Headsprout Early Reading™ is a new engaging, Internet-based reading program that effectively teaches the essential skills and strategies required for rapid reading success.

Layng, T. J., Twyman, J. S., & Stikeleather, G. (2003). Headsprout Early Reading: Reliably teaching children to read. Behavioral technology today3(7), 20.

Instructional effects of cues, participation, and corrective feedback: A quantitative synthesis.

The overall effects of cues, participation, and corrective feedback on classroom learning are estimated. The constancy of effects of these instructional qualities were explored across characteristics of students, and educational and contextual conditions. The results confirm the Dollard-Miller-Carroll-Bloom theory that has evolved during the past four decades. 

Lysakowski, R. S., & Walberg, H. J. (1982). Instructional Effects of Cues, Participation, and Corrective Feedback: A Quantitative Synthesis. American Educational Research Journal19(4), 559-78.

Instructional effects of cues, participation, and corrective feedback: A quantitative synthesis.

The overall effects of cues, participation, and corrective feedback on classroom learning are estimated. The constancy of effects of these instructional qualities were explored across characteristics of students, and educational and contextual conditions. The results confirm the Dollard-Miller-Carroll-Bloom theory that has evolved during the past four decades. 

Lysakowski, R. S., & Walberg, H. J. (1982). Instructional Effects of Cues, Participation, and Corrective Feedback: A Quantitative Synthesis. American Educational Research Journal19(4), 559-78.

Corrigendum: Deliberate practice and performance in music, games, sports, education, and professions: A meta-analysis

This meta-analysis research cover all major domains in which deliberate practice has been investigated in search of empirical evidence. The authors conclude that deliberate practice is important, but not as important as has been argued.

Macnamara, B. N., Hambrick, D. Z., & Oswald, F. L. (2014). Deliberate practice and performance in music, games, sports, education, and professions: A meta-analysis. Psychological science25(8), 1608-1618.

Four Classwide Peer Tutoring Models: Similarities, Differences, and Implications for Research and Practice

In this special issue, this Journal introduce a fourth peer teaching model, Classwide Student Tutoring Teams. This journal also provide a comprehensive analysis of common and divergent programmatic components across all four models and discuss the implications of this analysis for researchers and practitioners alike.

Maheady, L., Mallette, B., & Harper, G. F. (2006). Four classwide peer tutoring models: Similarities, differences, and implications for research and practice. Reading & Writing Quarterly22(1), 65-89.

A Collaborative Research Project to improve the Academic Performance of a Diverse Sixth Grade Science Class

Using an alternating treatments design, the authors compared the effects of Response Cards, Numbered Heads Together, and Whole Group Question and Answer on 6th graders daily quiz scores and pretest-posttest performance in chemistry, and examined how each instructional intervention affected teacher questioning and student responding patterns in class. 

Maheady, L., Michielli-Pendl, J., Mallette, B., & Harper, G. F. (2002). A collaborative research project to improve the academic performance of a diverse sixth grade science class. Teacher Education and Special Education25(1), 55-70.

Classroom Instruction That Works: Research Based Strategies For Increasing Student Achievement

This is a study of classroom management on student engagement and achievement.

Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Ascd

Classroom Instruction That Works: Research Based Strategies For Increasing Student Achievement

This is a study of classroom management on student engagement and achievement.

Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Ascd

Effects of The Cloze Procedure on Good and Poor Readers' Comprehension.

The effects of a cloze procedure developed from transfer feature theory of processing in reading on immediate and delayed recall of good and poor readers were studied

Mcgee, L. M. (1981). Effects of the Cloze Procedure on Good and Poor Readers' Comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior13(2), 145-156.

Should U.S. Students Do More Math Practice and Drilling?

Should U.S. students be doing more math practice and drilling in their classrooms? That’s the suggestion from last week’s most emailed New York Times op-ed. The op-ed’s author argued that more practice and drilling could help narrow math achievement gaps. These gaps occur in the U.S. by the primary grades.

Morgan, P. L. (2018). Should U.S. students do more math practice and drilling? Psychology Today.Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/children-who-struggle/201808/should-us-students-do-more-math-practice-and-drilling 

Using Response Cards to Increase Student Participation in an Elementary Classroom.

The use of response cards during large-group social studies instruction was evaluated in a fourthgrade classroom. The experiment consisted of two conditions, hand raising and write-on response cards, alternated in an ABAB design. 

Narayan, J. S., Heward, W. L., Gardner III, R., Courson, F. H., & Omness, C. K. (1990). Using response cards to increase student participation in an elementary classroom. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis23(4), 483-490.

Fostering achievement and motivation with bug-related tutoring feedback in a computer-based training for written subtraction

Most studies on feedback compare elaborated feedback types presenting knowledge on the correct response (KCR) immediately together with further information to simple feedback types providing knowledge of result (KR) or KCR. This study uses bug-related tutoring feedback (BRT-feedback) offering strategic information for error correction, but no immediate KCR.

Narciss, S., & Huth, K. (2006). Fostering achievement and motivation with bug-related tutoring feedback in a computer-based training for written subtraction. Learning and Instruction16(4), 310-322.

The Nation’s Report Card, 2017

The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is a national assessment of what America's students know in mathematics, reading, science, writing, the arts, civics, economics, geography, and U.S. history.

Nation’s Report Card. (2017). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Educational Statistics. Retrieved from the NAEP Data Explorerhttp://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata/

Promoting Educator Effectiveness: The Effects of Two Key Strategies

The National Center for Education Evaluation, a division of the Institute of Education Sciences has released a new research brief that evaluated two strategies for improving educator effectiveness as measured by improvements in student outcomes.  

National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences (March 2018).  Promoting Educator Effectiveness: The Effects of Two Key Strategies.

The cultural myths and realities of classroom teaching and learning: A personal journey.

In this article, the author argue that classroom teaching is structured by ritualized routines supported by widely held myths about learning and ability that are acquired through our common experiences as students.

Nuthall, G. (2005). The cultural myths and realities of classroom teaching and learning: A personal journey. Teachers College Record107(5), 895-934.

Extending the school day or school year: A systematic review of research

The school year and day length have varied over time and across localities depending on the particular needs of the community. Proponents argue that extending time will have learning and nonacademic benefits. Opponents suggest increased time is not guaranteed to lead to more effective instruction and suggest other costs. 

Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Allen, A. B. (2010). Extending the school day or school year: A systematic review of research (1985–2009). Review of educational research80(3), 401-436.

Active Student Response Strategies

a written guide for Active Student Response Strategies.

Pearce, A. R. (2011). Active student response strategies. CDE Facilities Seminar. Retrieved from http://www.cde.state.co.us/sites/default/files/documents/facilityschools/download/pdf/edmeetings_04apr2011_asrstrategies.pdf 

 

The effects of active participation on student learning.

The effects of active participation on student learning of simple probability was investigated using 20 fifth-grade classes randomly assigned to level of treatment. t was concluded that active student participation exerts a positive influence on fifth-grade student achievement of relatively unique instructional material.

Pratton, J., & Hales, L. W. (1986). The effects of active participation on student learning. The Journal of Educational Research79(4), 210-215.

Cloze Procedure and the Teaching of Reading

The terms cloze procedure and cohesion are associated with reading development. Specifically, doze applies to the testing and teaching of reading while cohesion applies to a description of how the way in which reading material is written can affect reading development. 

Raymond, P. (1988). Cloze procedure in the teaching of reading. TESL Canada Journal, 6(1), 91–97. 

Processing Fluency as the Source of Experiences at the Fringe of Consciousness

The authors extend Mangan's account of fringe consciousness by discussing their work on processing experiences. This research shows that variations in speed at different stages of perceptual processing can jointly contribute to subjective processing ease, supporting Mangan's notion that different mental processes condense into one subjective experience.

Reber, R., Fazendeiro, T. A., & Winkielman, P. (2002). Processing fluency as the source of experiences at the fringe of consciousness. Psyche8(10), 1-21.

Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading.

This article discuss about automaticity theory and attempt to do 2 things: 1. describe automaticity theory and its practical applications; and 2. explain some of the new ideas about automaticity. 

Samuels, S. J. (1994). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading, revisited.

Providing Performance Feedback to Teachers: A Review

This is a literature review of the effect of performance feedback on teacher’s use of practices.

Scheeler, M. C., Ruhl, K. L., & McAfee, J. K. (2004). Providing performance feedback to teachers: A review. Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, 27(4), 396-407.

Teacher-centered instruction: The Rodney Dangerfield of social studies.

Teacher-centered instruction implies a high degree of teacher direction and a focus of students on academic tasks. And it vividly contrasts with student-centered or constructivist approaches in establishing a leadership role for the teacher

Schug, M. C. (2003). Teacher-centereed instruction. Where did social studies go wrong, 94-110.

Focus on formative feedback

This article reviews the corpus of research on feedback, with a focus on formative feedback—defined as information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify his or her thinking or behavior to improve learning. According to researchers, formative feedback should be nonevaluative, supportive, timely, and specific.

Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of educational research78(1), 153-189.

Effects of two error-correction procedures on oral reading errors: Word supply versus sentence repeat

The effects of two error-correction procedures on oral reading errors and a control condition were compared in an alternating treatments design with three students who were moderately mentally retarded. The two procedures evaluated were word supply and sentence repeat.

Singh, N. N. (1990). Effects of two error-correction procedures on oral reading errors: Word supply versus sentence repeat. Behavior Modification14(2), 188-199.

Replication

Replication has taken on more importance recently because the ESSA evidence standards only require a single positive study. To meet the strong, moderate, or promising standards, programs must have at least one “well-designed and well-implemented” study using randomized (strong), matched (moderate), or correlational (promising) designs and finding significantly positive outcomes. 

Slavin, R. (2019). Replication. [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://robertslavinsblog.wordpress.com/2019/01/24/replication/

Retrieval practice protects memory against acute stress.

A commentary on: Retrieval practice protects memory against acute stress

Smith, A. M., Floerke, V. A., & Thomas, A. K. (2016). Retrieval practice protects memory against acute stress. Science354(6315), 1046-1048.

Effects of segmented and whole-word sound feedback on learning to read single words

Two experiments were conducted in which two ways of dealing with reading mistakes by beginning readers were systematically examined. In one condition (whole word), the whole correct word sound was provided when a reading error was made or when the pupil did not read the word within a certain time limit. In another condition (segmented feedback, the correct word sound was produced phoneme-by-phoneme when a reading error or an omission occurred.

Spaai, G. W., Ellermann, H. H., & Reitsma, P. (1991). Effects of segmented and whole-word sound feedback on learning to read single words. The Journal of Educational Research84(4), 204-214.

How much “opportunity to respond” does the minority disadvantaged student receive in school?

The purpose of this study was to examine academic responding and its associated instructional correlates for students in title I and non Title I school program

Stanley, S. O., & Greenwood, C. R. (1983). How much “opportunity to respond” does the minority disadvantaged student receive in school?.

How does class size reduction measure up to other common educational interventions in a cost-benefit analysis?

This analysis examined the cost effectiveness of research from Stuart Yeh on common sturctural interventions in education. Additionally, The Wing Institute analyzes class-size reduction using Yeh's methods.

States, J. (2009). How does class size reduction measure up to other common educational interventions in a cost-benefit analysis? Retrieved from how-does-class-size.

Does a longer school year or longer school day improve student achievement scores?

This reviews looks at the issue, do longer school days and longer school years improve student achievement?

States, J. (2011). Does a longer school year or longer school day improve student achievement scores? Retrieved from does-longer-school-year.

Active Student Responding (ASR)

Active Student Responding (ASR) is a strategies that designed to engage all students regardless of class size. ASR avoids the common problem of having only high achievers answer questions while low achievers remain silent, thus escaping detection. ASR strategies include; guided notes, response slates, response cards, and choral responding.

States, J., Detrich, R. & Keyworth, R. (2019). Active Student Responding (ASR) Overview.Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. https://www.winginstitute.org/instructional-delivery-student-respond

Assessing teacher use of opportunities to respond and effective classroom management strategies: Comparisons among high- and low-risk elementary schools.

This article presents an analysis of data collected across 35 general education classrooms in four elementary schools, assessing instructional variables associated with OTR. The relationship among opportunities to respond (OTR), measures of classroom management, and student work products was analyzed across Title and non-Title schools. 

Stichter, J. P., Lewis, T. J., Whittaker, T. A., Richter, M., Johnson, N. W., & Trussell, R. P. (2009). Assessing teacher use of opportunities to respond and effective classroom management strategies: Comparisons among high-and low-risk elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions11(2), 68-81.

A synthesis and meta-analysis of reading interventions using social studies content for students with learning disabilities.

A synthesis and meta-analysis of the extant research on the effects of reading interventions delivered using social studies content for students with learning disabilities in kindergarten through Grade 12 is provided.

Swanson, E., Hairrell, A., Kent, S., Ciullo, S., Wanzek, J. A., & Vaughn, S. (2014). A synthesis and meta-analysis of reading interventions using social studies content for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities47(2), 178-195.

Instructing adolescents with learning disabilities: A component and composite analysis.

The purpose of this article is to identify the components of various instructional models that best predicted effect sizes for adolescents with learning disabilities. Three important findings emerged.

Swanson, H. L., & Hoskyn, M. (2001). Instructing adolescents with learning disabilities: A component and composite analysis. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice16(2), 109-119.

Supporting learning from text: A meta-analysis on the timing and content of effective feedback

The aim of the present meta-analysis was to examine the effects of feedback on learning from text in conventional readers. If feedback is provided during reading, no differences are found between the effects of different types of feedback. Additionally, computer-delivered feedback is more beneficial for learning from text than non-computer-delivered feedback. Implications for optimizing conditions to support learning from text are discussed.

Swart, E. K., Nielen, T. M., & Sikkema-de Jong, M. T. (2019). Supporting learning from text: A meta-analysis on the timing and content of effective feedback. Educational Research Review28, 100296.

A meta-analysis of the effect of enhanced instruction: Cues, participation, reinforcement and feedback and correctives on motor skill learning.

The meta-analysis looks at the effect of enhanced instruction on motor skill acquisition of 4-5 yr old children and 4th-21th graders in Israel.

Tenenbaum, G., & Goldring, E. (1989). A meta-analysis of the effect of enhanced instruction: Cues, participation, reinforcement and feedback and correctives on motor skill learning. Journal of Research & Development in Education. 22(3) 53-64.

A meta-analysis of the effect of enhanced instruction: Cues, participation, reinforcement and feedback and correctives on motor skill learning.

The meta-analysis looks at the effect of enhanced instruction on motor skill acquisition of 4-5 yr old children and 4th-21th graders in Israel.

Tenenbaum, G., & Goldring, E. (1989). A meta-analysis of the effect of enhanced instruction: Cues, participation, reinforcement and feedback and correctives on motor skill learning. Journal of Research & Development in Education. 22(3) 53-64.

Preventing challenging behavior in your classroom: Positive behavior support and effective classroom management.

This book target regular and special education teachers who implement PBS in their classrooms. The book also serves as an essential resources for preservice teachers who are developing their classroom management skills. it focuses on practical strategies to prevent and reduce behavioral problems and enhance student learning. 

Tincani, M. (2011). Preventing challenging behavior in your classroom: Positive behavior support and effective classroom management. Sourcebooks, Inc..

Comparing brief and extended wait-time during small group instruction for children with challenging behavior.

This preliminary study compared brief (1 s) and extended (4 s) wait-time on response opportunities, academic responses, accuracy, and disruptive behavior of two children with challenging behavior during small group instruction

Tincani, M., & Crozier, S. (2007). Comparing brief and extended wait-time during small group instruction for children with challenging behavior. Journal of Behavioral Education16(4), 355-367.

Enhancing engagement through active student response.

Student engagement is critical to academic success. High-Active Student Response (ASR) teaching techniques are an effective way to improve student engagement and are an important component of evidence-based practice. . This report provides techniques and strategies to enhance engagement through ASR. Key terms are appended.

Tincani, M., & Twyman, J. S. (2016). Enhancing Engagement through Active Student Response. Center on Innovations in Learning, Temple University.

Isolating the effects of active responding in computer‐based instruction

This experiment evaluated the effects of requiring overt answer construction in computer-based programmed instruction using an alternating treatments design.

Tudor, R. M. (1995). Isolating the effects of active responding in computer‐based instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis28(3), 343-344.

Computer‐programmed instruction: The relation of required interaction to practical application.

A group experimental design compared passive reading, covert responding to frame blanks, and actively typing answers to blanks with and without immediate confirmation of correctness. Results strongly supported the effectiveness of requiring the student to supply fragments of a terminal repertoire while working through a program. 

Tudor, R. M., & Bostow, D. E. (1991). Computer‐programmed instruction: The relation of required interaction to practical application. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis24(2), 361-368.

Effects of feedback in a computer-based learning environment on students’ learning outcomes: A meta-analysis

In this meta-analysis, we investigated the effects of methods for providing item-based feedback in a computer-based environment on students’ learning outcomes. Effect sizes were negatively affected by delayed feedback timing and by primary and high school. Although the results suggested that immediate feedback was more effective for lower order learning than delayed feedback and vice versa, no significant interaction was found.

Van der Kleij, F. M., Feskens, R. C., & Eggen, T. J. (2015). Effects of feedback in a computer-based learning environment on students’ learning outcomes: A meta-analysis. Review of educational research85(4), 475-511.

Productive teaching

This literature review examines the impact of various instructional methods

Walberg H. J. (1999). Productive teaching. In H. C. Waxman & H. J. Walberg (Eds.) New directions for teaching, practice, and research (pp. 75-104). Berkeley, CA: McCutchen Publishing.

Productive teaching

This literature review examines the impact of various instructional methods

Walberg H. J. (1999). Productive teaching. In H. C. Waxman & H. J. Walberg (Eds.) New directions for teaching, practice, and research (pp. 75-104). Berkeley, CA: McCutchen Publishing.

What Influences Learning? A Content Analysis Of Review Literature.

This is a meta-review and synthesis of the research on the variables related learning.

Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1990). What influences learning? A content analysis of review literature. The Journal of Educational Research, 30-43.

Practice makes perfect—but only if you practice beyond the point of perfection.

On the one hand, it seems obvious that practice is important. After all, "practice makes perfect." On the other hand, it seems just as obvious that practicing the same material again and again would be boring for students. How much practice is the right amount?

Willingham, D. T. (2004). Ask the Cognitive Scientist Practice Makes Perfect, But Only If You Practice Beyond the Point of Perfection. American Educator28(1), 31-33.

Why don't students like school? A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for the classroom

The cognitive principle that guides this article is: People are naturally curious, but they are not naturally good thinkers; unless the cognitive conditions are right, people will avoid thinking.

Willingham, D. T. (2009). Why don't students like school?: A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for the classroom. John Wiley & Sons.

Effects of preprinted response cards on students’ participation and off-task behavior in a rural kindergarten classroom.

This study used a reversal design to examine the use of preprinted response cards on students' participation and off-task behavior during calendar circle-time in a rural kindergarten inclusion classroom. Results showed a functional relationship between preprinted response cards and increased participation and decreased off-task behavior for all 4 target students.

Wood, C. L., Mabry, L. E., Kretlow, A. G., Lo, Y. Y., & Galloway, T. W. (2009). Effects of preprinted response cards on students' participation and off-task behavior in a rural kindergarten classroom. Rural Special Education Quarterly28(2), 39-47.

Educational battlefields in America: The tug-of-war over students' engagement with instruction.

This study shows that gaps between opportunities to learn and students' appropriation of those opportunities are instructionally produced and socially distributed via mechanism that affect engagement and lead to alienation from instruction - the dissociation between students' physical presence in academic classes and their thoughts while in class. 

Yair, G. (2000). Educational battlefields in America: The tug-of-war over students' engagement with instruction. Sociology of Education, 247-269.

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SYNOPSIS
Active Student Responding: Supporting Student Learning and Engagement

This web site offers a clear and concise review of Active student responding.

National Council of Teachers of English

This web site provides resources for teachers of English in lesson plans and other teaching resources.

Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)

PISA is a triennial international survey that evaluates education systems worldwide by testing the skills and knowledge of 15-year-old students.

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