Education Drivers

Teacher Standards

More than 30 years of research strongly supports the link between teacher quality and increased student achievement. Studies identify teaching as one of the most challenging professions, requiring teachers to make an average of 1,200 critical teaching decisions a day. It is not surprising that preparation programs must attract the best and brightest candidates if students in the American school system are to succeed. Exemplary international education systems recruit 100% of teachers from the top third of university students. In the United States only 25% meet this standard. U.S. preparation programs exacerbate the problem with easy grading, awarding students significantly higher grades than students in other academic departments. Also, the insufficient number of credentialed candidates have compromised standards and resulted in open teaching positions. To fill these openings, schools often hire teachers enrolled in alternative credential programs. The principal distinction between the alternative model and traditional pre-service is that alternative programs provide a minimum of instruction prior to candidates entering the classroom, and the candidates receive subsequent preparation toward a credential only when employed as classroom teachers.

Teacher Standards Overview

Introduction

At the school level, teachers are the most important influence on student achievement (Hattie, 2009; States et al., 2012; Wengslinsky, 2002). However, not all teachers produce the same results and teachers often vary significantly in effectiveness (OECD, 2005). Some variation is to be expected; it is not realistic for everyone who wants to teach to be an effective teacher, or for every teacher to maintain a consistent level of effectiveness sin the long-term (OECD, 2005).

Teacher standards, the criteria that teachers must meet to enter the classroom, can function as a way to ensure that teachers meet a base level of quality that translates into high-quality teaching and student achievement. There are two points where standards serve as gateways:

  • Teacher preparation programs set standards for entry, and
  • States set standards for teachers to meet to become licensed and credentialed.

The most important aspect of having standards is whether or not they are associated with stronger teacher performance, and student outcomes. Indeed, if having teacher standards to not contribute to higher student outcomes then the value of the standards should be re-evaluated.

The purpose of this overview is to provide information about the research around teacher standards in teacher preparation programs and teacher licensure. Important questions about teacher standards include:

  • Are the standards that teachers must meet to enter teacher preparation programs associated with student outcomes?
  • Are the standards that teachers must meet to enter the profession and become licensed associated with student outcomes?
  • Are the standards for alternatively certified teachers significantly different than those for traditionally certified teachers? And, if so, are these associated with student outcomes?

History of Teacher Standards

The 1983 Nation at Risk report and subsequent reports suggested that teachers and schools were important for the country’s economic success. These initiated discussion about accountability of teachers for student achievement. It also prompted policy makers to set teacher standards (Lincove et al., 2014). Since then, focus at the federal level has shifted from accountability to equity and effectiveness (Remer, 2017).

In 2001, the No Child Left Behind act (NCLB) required statewide standards and assessments, as well as annual reporting. The law also introduced the idea of “highly qualified” teachers, or those who earned a bachelor’s degree, full state certification or licensure, and demonstrated subject matter competency. NCLB required that all core academic subjects be taught by “highly qualified” teachers, though the final definition of who was “highly qualified” and how that was determined was left up to states (Remer, 2017).

A 2007 Center on Education Policy survey found that a majority of state and district leaders reported that the requirements to be “highly qualified” had minimal, if any, impact on student achievement (Birman et al., 2007).

In 2016, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) eliminated the federal mandate for teachers to be “highly qualified,” leaving qualifications to states. In the wake of ESSA, states moved forward with evaluation systems that included multiple levels of performance classification, frequent teacher evaluation, and other measures.This recent conversation reflects a shift in the conversation from inputs (e.g., teacher candidate credentials) to outputs (teacher effectiveness; Remer, 2017).

Questions about Teacher Standards

Teacher standards still exist to provide a baseline of aptitude that teachers should have upon entering the classroom. The core questions around teacher standards is how having standards in place impacts teacher and student outcomes.

Do teacher standards align with teacher effectiveness? What should we measure?    

When teacher candidates apply to a teacher preparation program, they typically must meet a minimum academic standard (e.g., ACT or SAT scores, GPA, essay). Focusing on academic measures may be beneficial. According to a National Council on Teacher Quality (NCTQ) report, there is a strong correlation between a teacher’s academic aptitude and student achievement. Further, teachers who were good students are more likely to advance student learning. However, there is no one academic measure that predicts how well a teacher candidate will do, leaving a variety of measures for teacher preparation programs to choose from (NCTQ, 2021).

      To enter teaching, candidates are often required to pass state licensure tests. A RAND study that used longitudinal data in Los Angeles, CA, examined whether teacher licensure test scores and other attributes affected elementary school achievement. At the time, California required teachers to take a general knowledge test, a subject knowledge test, and a reading pedagogy test for elementary teacher certification. Teachers in LAUSD had an average of 10 years of experience teaching, however, the sample was skewed with more teachers in their first three years of teaching (20% were in their first three years of teaching). The study used a value-added approach to examine student achievement and adjust for student and teacher effects. There were large differences in teacher quality across the district, but teacher scores were unrelated to teacher success in the classroom. Whether or not teachers had advanced degrees also did not impact student achievement. There was a weak link between teacher experience and student achievement that was most likely linked to the skew in the sample of teachers at the start of their career (Buddin & Zamaro, 2008). 

In another analysis, Clotfelter et al. (2007) used a data set from North Carolina across a 10-year period, to explore the relationship between teacher characteristics and credentials and student achievement. They concluded that teacher experience, test scores, and regular licensure all have positive effect on student achievement. There were larger effects on math than on reading. This may be because of the view that, relative to families, teachers have a greater role to play in math than in reading. It was also noted that student characteristics have a greater impact on math than on reading.

Teacher standards can also come into play when districts are hiring. A study of teacher selection in Washington, DC analyzed the district’s application process that considered a written assignment about the candidate’s understanding of content and instruction, a 30-minute structured interview, and a teaching “audition,” in addition to undergraduate GPA and other academic indicators (Jacob, 2016). The researchers found that these additional measures strongly predicted how a teacher would perform in the classroom (using the district’s teacher evaluation system). Candidates in the top quartile of applicant quality scored 0.6 standard deviations higher than applicants in the bottom quartile; the difference between a 1st and 3rd year teacher. This suggests that it’s not only the standards that usher teachers into the field, but also how districts use the resources at their disposal to screen and hire candidates.

Standards to Enter Teacher Preparation Programs

Teacher preparation programs have the responsibility of ensuring that candidates that are selected for programs have the criteria and aptitude to become quality teachers. To that end, quality, meaningful admission standards are an important part of teacher preparation programs (Miller-Levy et al., 2014). The requirements for entry are set by individual institutions (Poiner, 2016). Often these requirements are not very rigorous (Poiner, 2016). National organization, such as NCTQ, have also identified low standards for entry into teacher preparation programs as a problem (Greenberg et al., 2015).

In general, in countries other than the U.S., teacher preparation programs recruit and admit the most academically capable young adults into teaching. Barber and Mourshed (2007) studied high-performing educational systems and found that other countries select teacher candidates from the top third of students. In contrast, NCTQ’s Teacher Prep Review found that most U. S. teacher preparation programs are not ensuring that candidates are coming from the top half of the college-going population. This is important because, a comparison across 23 countries found that teachers’ cognitive skills were “an important determinant of international differences in student performance.” (Hanushek et al., 2014).

Focusing on who teacher preparation programs are recruiting is important. At the entry level, standards are multi-faceted. Other research suggests that multiple measures, including academic achievement, predict teacher’s performance on evaluation (in this case in Washington, DC) (Jacob, 2016). Selectivity may be of primary importance; there is limited evidence that more selective programs may produce more selective teachers, there is no research that connects candidate selection process to teacher and student outcomes (Coggshall et al., 2012). Research indicates that higher standards for teacher entry into university programs as measured by SAT scores and average GPA prior to admission, and a university’s general competitiveness, is correlated with increased student achievement (Boyd et al., 2008; Steele et al., 2015; Lincove et al., 2015; Henry et al., 2012).

Furthermore, research suggests a small but significant correlation between measures of a teacher candidate’s aptitude before entering a program and their eventual effectiveness in the classroom (Henry et al., 2012; Levine, 2006; Rice, 2003). A study in North Carolina assessed the effects of teacher candidate aptitude on several outcomes. Students who had received merit scholarships and graduated from NC public schools of higher education produced higher student achievement in students (across elementary, middle, and secondary) compared to those graduates who had not received scholarships (Henry et al., 2012).

According to NCTQ, raising the bar for admission to teacher preparation programs would help ensure a stronger teaching workforce by eliminating access to potentially weaker teachers (Greenberg et al., 2015).

Limitations

There are limitations to the information that is used for entry into teacher preparation programs. Miller-Levy et al. (2014) analyzed data from 19 university-based teacher preparation programs in Texas and found that the majority of data was quantitative, focusing on content knowledge. Miller-Levy et al. (2014) had concerns about the predictive validity of this type of information. A teacher candidate’s GPA may not predict how responsive their teaching strategies are, and academic skills cannot predict how a teacher will facilitate student learning (Miller-Levy et al., 2014). Furthermore, completing a teacher preparation program did not determine a teacher’s passion for teaching (Miller-Levy et al., 2014).

There are also skills that are important for teaching that are difficult to measure. Teacher behaviors, like problem solving, critical thinking, reasoning, and adherence to social ethics are important but difficult to capture (Miller-Levy et al., 2014). Furthermore, capturing a candidate’s attitude towards teaching is difficult to do, though this may be an important factor (Miller-Levy et al., 2014).

Standards for Teacher Licensure

Once teachers have completed a university or alternative program, licensure (or certification) remains a minimum standard of entry into the profession (Coggshall et al., 2012; Crowe, 2010). All states require that graduates meet minimum standards for teacher certification, including passing state tests, holding a degree in the subject area, and completing coursework. Currently, the average first-attempt pass rate for states with strong test systems is 45% (Putnam & Walsh, 2021).

State Tests

Research on the effects of certification on teacher quality and effectiveness is inconclusive (Allen, 2003; National Research Council, 2010: Wilson & Youngs, 2005). There have been only modest positive relationships between teacher licensure exam scores and student achievement (Clotfelter et al., 2007; Goldhaber, 2007) In addition, Goldhaber (2007) found multiple examples of teachers who did not pass licensure exams but were effective in the classroom. This suggests that the predictive validity of licensure exams is unknown (Wayne & Youngs, 2003; Wilson & Youngs, 2005).

Performance Assessments

In recent years, performance assessments, like the edTPA (educative Teacher Performance Assessment) have been implemented across the U.S.

Chung and Zou (2021) conducted a study using a quasi-experimental design analyzing the edTPA adoption timelines of state and multiple data sources of students and new teachers in the U.S. They found that the edTPA license requirement reduced the number of graduates from teacher preparation programs by 14%, an effect that was stronger for non-white teachers at less-selective universities. They also found that edTPA had adverse effects on student learning.

More research needs to be done on how performance on edTPA predicts teachers’ future performance in the classroom.

Limitations

One problem related to teacher licensure tests is that pass scores are low; most states set cut scores at or below national median scores and pass rates in 2008-2009 were 95% for traditional programs and 97% for alternative route program completers (US DOE, 2011). This measure has limitations because tests were designed to set minimum standards of knowledge, not teaching quality (Wilson & Youngs, 2005).

State level approval processes to recommend teachers for state licensure vary widely, are rarely evidence-based, and are monitored infrequently (National Research Council, 2010; Wilson & Youngs, 2005). Standards and processes for approval and accreditation can be inefficient and have requirements that are not supported by evidence (Allen, 2003; Crowe, 2010; National Research Council, 2010) Finally, relying on testing may be a poor proxy for teacher overall quality (Walsh, 2002; Crowe, 2010).

Are the standards for alternatively certified teachers significantly different than those for traditionally certified teachers? And, if so, are these associated with student outcomes?

In 2018, NCES estimated that, of 3.8 million public school teachers in 2015-2016, 18% (676,000) had entered teaching through an alternative route to certification (e.g., Teach for America). Many alternative certification programs are designed for people who have never had teacher education courses (NCES, 2018).

Alternative certification routes may have higher standards for entry than traditional teaching programs. For example, Teach for America (TFA) has higher entry standards than traditional education colleges (Poiner, 2016). Specifically, the majority of TFA applicants must complete multiple interviews, a sample lesson, and other exercises. TFA teachers are just as effective at promoting student achievement as other teachers. A Mathematica study found that TFA teachers in their first two years of teaching were equally as effective in reading and math compared with more veteran teachers (average years of teaching: 13.6 years) in comparable schools (Clark et al., 2015). One exception was teachers in the early grades (Pre-kindergarten through 2nd grade); TFA teachers raised student reading abilities an additional 1.3 months compared to traditionally trained teachers (Clark et al., 2015).

See et al. (2020) found that alternative certification programs, like TFA, recruited more teachers and those with higher academic qualifications. Specifically, the New York City Maths Immersions programs attracted more candidates to teaching in a critical area of need (Boyd et al., 2012).

In terms of candidate aptitude, TFA recruits teachers with the highest test scores (SAT or ACT; Koop & Farr, 2011). TFA teachers generally produce student achievement equal to or higher than teachers who did not participate in TFA (Clarke et al., 2015; Decker et al., 2004; Henry et al., 2012; Kane et al. 2008). However, it is unclear whether those effects are due to the more rigorous selection or the training that TFA teachers receive after their selection.

Other studies have also found no difference between alternatively and traditionally trained teachers. A study of K-5 teachers found no difference between alternatively and traditionally certified teachers on important criteria (Constantine et al. 2009). Another study on TNTP teachers matched with traditionally trained teachers in their first 2 years of teaching and found no difference in teacher performance or student achievement (Bos & Gerdeman, 2017).

Darling-Hammond et al. (2005) analyzed 6 years of data (1995-2002) from teachers reading and math tests in grades 4 and 5 in Texas and found that teachers who were certified produced significantly stronger student achievement gains than uncertified teachers, including alternatively certified teachers who had not yet completed a certification program. This may indicate that teacher certification is more important than the route teachers take to obtain their certification.

There are questions about whether alternatively certified teachers, many of whom leave the profession after a two-year commitment, are not more effective because they do not have the benefit of additional years in the classroom (Darling-Hammond, 2011; Ravitch, 2013).

On the whole, alternative certification programs can maintain standards of entry for teacher candidates with the same outcomes within the first two years of teaching compared to traditionally trained teachers.

Cost of Teacher Standards

The cost of teacher standards depends on many factors, but the cost on districts and schools is limited as standards are set at the federal and state level and much of the resources are expended by universities and teacher candidates themselves (e.g., testing requirements, setting policies).

Recommendations for Teacher Standards

Recommendations for Teacher Preparation Programs

Admission into teacher preparation programs should align with the qualities that we know are fundamental for effective teaching (Miller-Levy et al., 2014). NCTQ recommends setting higher standards on the front end (rather than at teacher licensure) as a better way to ensure high quality candidates (Greenberg et al., 2015). These rigorous standards could include higher GPA and test (ACT or SAT) requirements.

Teacher preparation programs must develop valid and reliable ways to screen teacher candidates for skills that are important for teaching, but not captured by academic measures, for example, problem solving skills, critical thinking, adherence to social ethics, and reasoning skills (Miller-Levy et al., 2014).

Setting a higher bar for entry into teacher preparation programs has the potential to:

  • Ensure a higher level of work within the program (Poiner, 2016).
  • Improve the return-on-investment by allowing teacher candidates who are better suited for other careers to pursue other avenues before spending money on a teaching major (Greenberg et al., 2015).
  • Recruit fewer candidates overall, which may put education in competition with other fields of study that pay more and have more opportunities for advancement (Poiner, 2016).
  • Ensure a stronger workforce by eliminating access to teaching for teacher candidates who are potentially weaker (Greenberg et al., 2015).

Changes in the standards for entry into teacher preparation programs would necessitate thinking about how to incentivize people to go into teaching, for example, providing tuition forgiveness, scholarships, and tax credits (Poiner, 2016).

Recommendations for States and Districts

How districts screen and hire candidates is important. The following are recommendations for states and districts:

  • Consider multiple indicators, including GPA, performance tests (edTPA) and licensure, as well as writing samples, structured interviews, and teaching auditions when hiring teachers (Jacob, 2016).
  • Do not use edTPA to predict teacher success.

Recommendations for Alternative Certification Programs

Alternative certification programs should maintain their relatively high requirements for entry into their programs. With the current standards for entry, alternative teacher certification programs can maintain student outcomes, while providing an important hiring pipeline for many districts.

Conclusion

            Teacher standards are set to ensure that teachers who come into classrooms are prepared to effectively deliver instruction. However, the current level of standards may not be focusing on the measures that best predict a teacher’s success or may not be high enough to ensure that teachers who enter the classroom are best suited to produce student outcomes. Focusing on a range of measures that capture the qualities of highly effective teachers can help align standards with the goal of improving the pool of teachers.

 

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Publications

TITLE
SYNOPSIS
CITATION
School Climate: Research, Policy, Practice, and Teacher Education

This article examines the relationship between school-climate-related research findings on the one hand and educational policy, school improvement practice, and teacher education on the other.

Cohen, J., McCabe, L., Michelli, N. M., & Pickeral, T. (2009). School climate: Research, policy, practice, and teacher education. Teachers college record111(1), 180-213.

Introduction: Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation.

This article shared information about the Wing Institute and demographics of the Summit participants. It introduced the Summit topic, sharing performance data on past efforts of school reform that focused on structural changes rather than teaching improvement. The conclusion is that the system has spent enormous resources with virtually no positive results. The focus needs to be on teaching improvement.

Keyworth, R., Detrich, R., & States, J. (2012). Introduction: Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation. In Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation (Vol. 2, pp. ix-xxx). Oakland, CA: The Wing

Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation

This article shared information about the Wing Institute and demographics of the Summit participants. It introduced the Summit topic, sharing performance data on past efforts of school reform that focused on structural changes rather than teaching improvement. The conclusion is that the system has spent enormous resources with virtually no positive results. The focus needs to be on teaching improvement.

Keyworth, R., Detrich, R., & States, J. (2012). Introduction: Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation. In Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation (Vol. 2, pp. ix-xxx). Oakland, CA: The Wing

Effective Teachers Make a Difference

This analysis examines the available research on effective teaching, how to impart these skills, and how to best transition teachers from pre-service to classroom with an emphasis on improving student achievement. It reviews current preparation practices and examine the research evidence on how well they are preparing teachers

States, J., Detrich, R. & Keywroth, R. (2012). Effective Teachers Make a Difference. In Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation (Vol. 2, pp. 1-46). Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute.

 

Data Mining

TITLE
SYNOPSIS
CITATION
Are Schools Adequately Attracting and Retaining Teaching Staff?

This analysis looks at retention and experience data for teachers in the United States.

Keyworth, R. (2010). Are Schools Adequately Attracting and Retaining Teaching Staff? Retrieved from are-schools-adequately-attracting927.

What does current research tell us about the effect of four- and five-year teacher preparation programs on the quality of teachers and student achievement?
This analysis lookes at the quality of research comparing four versus five-year teacher credential programs to identify which approach produces the best teachers.
States, J. (2011). What does current research tell us about the effect of four- and five-year teacher preparation programs on the quality of teachers and student achievement? Retrieved from what-does-current-research.
Which credential process produces better teachers: traditional or alternative?
This analysis examines research comparing the impact on student achievement for traditional routes to receiving a teaching credential to alternative credential paths.
States, J. (2011). Which credential process produces better teachers: traditional or alternative? Retrieved from which-credential-process-produces.
Is Teacher Preparation Challenging Enough?
This analysis examines the rigor of teacher pre-service coursework in comparison to other common disciplines.
States, J. (2014). Is Teacher Preparation Challenging Enough? Retrieved from is-teacher-preparation-challenging.

 

Presentations

TITLE
SYNOPSIS
CITATION
From "Learning to Learn" to "Training to Teach": Changing the Culture of Teacher Preparation
This paper discusses the results of the National Council on Teacher Quality’s first nation-wide study of 2,420 university teacher preparation programs across 1,130 institutions.
McKee, A. (2014). From "Learning to Learn" to "Training to Teach": Changing the Culture of Teacher Preparation [Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from 2014-wing-presentation-arthur-mckee.
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Teachers’ subject matter knowledge as a teacher qualification: A synthesis of the quantitative literature on students’ mathematics achievement

The main focus of this study is to find different kinds of variables that might contribute to variations in the strength and direction of the relationship by examining quantitative studies that relate mathematics teachers’ subject matter knowledge to student achievement in mathematics.

Ahn, S., & Choi, J. (2004). Teachers' Subject Matter Knowledge as a Teacher Qualification: A Synthesis of the Quantitative Literature on Students' Mathematics Achievement. Online Submission.

Not Prepared for Class: High-Poverty Schools Continue to Have Fewer In-Field Teachers.

As Secretary of Education from 1993 to 2001, Richard Riley had serious concerns about out-of-field teaching. The practice— which places in core academic classes instructors who have neither certification nor a major in the subject field taught— just didn’t make sense to him.

Almy, S., & Theokas, C. (2010). Not Prepared for Class: High-Poverty Schools Continue to Have Fewer In-Field Teachers. Education Trust.

The Clinical Preparation of Teachers: A Policy Brief

This policy brief focuses on the clinical aspects of teacher preparation in each of these key features. These aspects include the typical processes of clinical work, the location, and the duration of the training.

American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE). (2010). The clinical preparation of teachers: A policy brief. Washington, DC: Author.

Teachers Matter: Evidence from Value-Added Assessments.

Value-added assessment proves that very good teaching can boost student learning and that family background does not determine a student's destiny. Students taught by highly effective teachers several years in a row earn higher test scores than students assigned to particularly ineffective teachers.

American Education Research Association (AERA). (2004). Teachers matter: Evidence from value-added assessments. Research Points, 2(2). Retrieved from http://www.aera.net/ Portals/38/docs/Publications/Teachers%20Matter.pdf

Recruiting effective math teachers: Evidence from New York City

For well over a decade school districts across the United States have struggled to recruit and retain effective mathematics teachers. This article examines the qualifications, student achievement gains, and retention of Math Immersion teachers in New York City compared to New York City mathematics teachers who began their careers through other pathways.

Boyd, D., Grossman, P., Hammerness, K., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., Ronfeldt, M., & Wyckoff, J. (2012). Recruiting effective math teachers: evidence from New York City. American Educational Research Journal49(6), 1008-1047.

A review of the research literature on teacher recruitment and retention

In the face of a growing school-age population, U.S. schools and school districts are struggling to maintain teaching standards while recruiting bright new teachers and retaining their most-effective ones. This literature review represents a comprehensive and critical examination of research published since 1980 on the topic of teacher recruitment and retention in the United States.

Brewer, D., Guarino, C. M., Santibanez, L., & Daley, G. A. (2004). A Review of the Research Literature on Teacher Recruitment and Retention (TR-164).

Achieving Equitable Accessing to Strong Teachers: A Guide for District Leaders

The purpose of this guide is to help district leaders take on the challenge of ensuring that students have equitable access to excellent teachers. It shares some early lessons the Education Trust has learned from districts about the levers available to prioritize low-income students and students of color in teacher quality initiatives. The guide outlines a seven-stage process that can help leaders define their own challenges, explore underlying causes, and develop strategies to ensure all schools and students have equitable access to effective teachers.

Bromberg, M. (2016). Achieving Equitable Access to Strong Teachers: A Guide for District Leaders. Education Trust.

Strengthening clinical preparation: The holy grail of teacher education.

This article outlines the challenges to creating productive clinical experiences for prospective teachers, and identifies strategies that have been found successful in confronting these challenges

Darling-Hammond, L. (2014). Strengthening clinical preparation: The holy grail of teacher education. Peabody Journal of Education89(4), 547-561.

How we think

Our schools are troubled with a multiplication of studies, each in turn having its own multiplication of materials and principles. Our teachers find their tasks made heavier in that they have come to deal with pupils individually and not merely in mass. Unless these steps in advance are to end in distraction, some clew of unity, some principle that makes for simplification, must be found.

Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. DC Heath & Co. Boston, Mass224.

Teaching methods and students’ academic performance

The objective of this study was to investigate the differential effectiveness of teaching methods on students’ academic performance. Using the inferential statistics course, students’ assessment test scores were derived from the internal class test prepared by the lecturer. 

Ganyaupfu, E. M. (2013). Teaching methods and students’ academic performance. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention2(9), 29-35.

The academic quality of prospective teachers: The impact of admissions and licensure testing.

This study examined the academic and demographic profile of the pool of prospective teachers and then explored how this profile is affected by teacher testing.

Gitomer, D. H., Latham, A. S., & Ziomek, R. (1999). The academic quality of prospective teachers: The impact of admissions and licensure testing. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Retrieved from http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/RR-03-35.pdf

Teacher Prep Review: A Review of the Nation's Teacher Preparation Programs

This study examines teacher preparation programs and how they have ineffectively been preparing teachers in critical areas necessary for effective teaching. The paper establishes ratings of key standards for 608 teacher preparation programs.

Greenberg, J., McKee, A., & Walsh, K. (2013). Teacher Prep Review: A Review of the Nation's Teacher Preparation Programs. National Council on Teacher Quality.

A New Definition

NSDC opens the door to professional learning that ensures great teaching for every student every day

Hirsh, S. (2009). A new definition. Journal of Staff Development, 30(4), 10–16.

Do Low-Income Students Have Equal Access to Effective Teachers? Evidence from 26 Districts (Final Report)
This report examines whether low-income students are taught by less effective teachers than high-income students, and if so, whether reducing this inequity would close the student achievement gap. It also describes how the hiring of teachers and their subsequent movement into and out of schools could affect low-income students access to effective teachers.

 

Isenberg, E., Max, J., Gleason, P., Johnson, M., Deutsch, J., & Hansen, M. (2016). Do low-income students have equal access to effective teachers? Evidence from 26 districts (No. ce9ae6b49ff34e388113f31ca621bfa8). Mathematica Policy Research.

What does certification tell us about teacher effectiveness? Evidence from New York City

The authors use six years of data on student test performance to evaluate the effectiveness of certified, uncertified, and alternatively certified teachers in the New York City public schools. This study also evaluates turnover among teachers with different certification status and the impact on student achievement of hiring teachers with predictably high turnover

Kane, T. J., Rockoff, J. E., & Staiger, D. O. (2008). What does certification tell us about teacher effectiveness? Evidence from New York City. Economics of Education review27(6), 615-631.

Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation

This article shared information about the Wing Institute and demographics of the Summit participants. It introduced the Summit topic, sharing performance data on past efforts of school reform that focused on structural changes rather than teaching improvement. The conclusion is that the system has spent enormous resources with virtually no positive results. The focus needs to be on teaching improvement.

Keyworth, R., Detrich, R., & States, J. (2012). Introduction: Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation. In Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation (Vol. 2, pp. ix-xxx). Oakland, CA: The Wing

Teacher quality: A report on the preparation and qualifications of public school teachers.

This report is based on efforts by the National Center for Education Statistics to collect data on teacher preparation and qualifications using a nationally representative survey of full-time public school teachers whose main teaching assignment is in English/language arts, social studies/social sciences, foreign language, mathematics, or science (or who teach a self-contained classroom).

Lewis, L., Parsad, B., Carey, N., Bartfai, N., Farris, E., & Smerdon, B. (1999). Teacher quality: A report on the preparation and qualifications of public school teachers. NCES 1999-080. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs99/1999080.pdf

Preparing preservice teachers to implement class wide peer tutoring

This study focused on preservice general education teachers who were prepared to use an evidence-based teaching practice and the effects the practice had on their pupils’ academic performance.

Maheady, L., Harper, G. F., Mallette, B., & Karnes, M. (2004). Preparing preservice teachers to implement class wide peer tutoring. Teacher Education and Special Education27(4), 408-418.

 
Ensuring Equitable Access to Strong Teacher: Important Elements of an Effective State Action Plan

This short guide, based on what we have learned from two decades of work on this issue, provides a few ideas on what could be included in a good plan. Our recommendations are grouped into three categories: Analyze, Build, and Create.

Metz, R. (2015). Ensuring Equitable Access to Strong Teachers: Important Elements of an Effective State Action Plan. Education Trust.

20 Years of TIMMS International trends in Mathematics and Science Achievement, Curriculum, and Instruction

This report attempts to summarize the most important and interesting trends emerging from TIMSS across the past two decades. The report is organized from macro to micro perspectives. The first chapter provides an overview of student achievement worldwide. The second and third chapters explore curriculum and instruction. The fourth and fifth chapters narrow the focus to two topics of interest among policymakers. 

Mullis, I. V., Martin, M. O., & Loveless, T. (20). years of TIMSS: International trends in mathematics and science achievement, curriculum, and instruction. TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College and International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA).

Redesigning National Board Certification: The Advancement of Accomplished Teaching

The following brief summarizes recent work completed to redesign the certification process for accomplished preK-12 educators.

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, (2016). Redesigning National Board Certification: The Advancement of Accomplished Teaching. National Board for Professional Teaching Standards.

Lessons from PISA for the United States–Strong performers and successful reformers in education

US President Obama has launched one of the world’s most ambitious education reform agendas. Under the heading “Race to the Top”, this agenda encourages US states to adopt internationally benchmarked standards and assessments that prepare students for success in college and the workplace: recruit, develop, reward, and retain effective teachers and principals. 

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2011). Lessons from PISA for the United States–Strong performers and successful reformers in education. OECD Publishing. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264096660-en

Meeting the highly qualifed teachers challenge: The secretary’s annual report on teacher quality.

Under the 1998 reauthorization of Title II of the Higher Education Act, the secretary of education is required to issue annual reports to Congress on the state of teacher quality nationwide. "Meeting the Highly Qualified Teachers Challenge" is the inaugural report on this important issue.

Paige, R. (2002). Meeting the Highly Qualified Teachers Challenge: The Secretary's Annual Report on Teacher Quality. US Department of Education.

What to Make of Declining Enrollment in Teacher Preparation Programs

This policy report provides a look at the decline in the enrollment of American teacher preparation programs, along with potential consequences for schools and the student they serve. 

Partelow, L. (2019). What to Make of Declining Enrollment in Teacher Preparation Programs. Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/education-k-12/reports/2019/12/03/477311/make-declining-enrollment-teacher-preparation-programs/

Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking

Thinking, particularly reflective thinking or inquiry, is essential to both teachers’ and students’ learning. In the past 10 to 15 years numerous commissions, boards, and foundations as well as states and local school districts have identified reflection/inquiry as a standard toward which all teachers and students must strive.

Rodgers, C. (2002). Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking. Teachers college record104(4), 842-866.

Barriers to the Preparation of Highly Qualified Teachers in Reading. TQ Research & Policy Brief.

This paper pointed out three prominent points of impact in addressing the poor performance of America’s fourth-graders on national examinations of reading proficiency. 

Smartt, S. M., & Reschly, D. J. (2007). Barriers to the Preparation of Highly Qualified Teachers in Reading. TQ Research & Policy Brief. National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality.

An Examination of the Relationship Between Depth of Student Learning and National Board Certification Status

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of National Board Certified Teachers (NBCTs) on student achievement (depth of student learning), compared to teachers who attempted, but did not receive National Board Certification

 

Smith, T. W., Gordon, B., Colby, S. A., & Wang, J. (2005). An examination of the relationship between depth of student learning and National Board Certification status. Office for Research on Teaching, Appalachian State University.

Effective Teachers Make a Difference

This analysis examines the available research on effective teaching, how to impart these skills, and how to best transition teachers from pre-service to classroom with an emphasis on improving student achievement. It reviews current preparation practices and examine the research evidence on how well they are preparing teachers

States, J., Detrich, R. & Keywroth, R. (2012). Effective Teachers Make a Difference. In Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation (Vol. 2, pp. 1-46). Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute.

The teacher pay penalty has hit a new high: Trends in the teacher wage and compensation gaps through 2017

This study concludes that teacher compensation is falling further and further behind that of comparable career opportunities each year. The study also downplays the impact of the recent recession on this trend, highlighting the impact of state government decisions on reducing education funding.

Teach for America: A Return to the Evidence

The authors recommend a shift in focus for TFA from a program of mixed impact to one that makes measureable changes in the quality of education in America. Recommendations for policymakers and districts are provided.

Vasquez Heilig, J., & Jez, S. J. (2014). Teach For America: A return to the evidence.

Teacher Certification Reconsidered: Stumbling for Quality.

This report examines research on teacher certification, reviewing every published study or paper, and many unpublished dissertations, cited by prominent advocates of teacher certification.

Walsh, K. (2001). Teacher Certification Reconsidered: Stumbling for Quality.

Within Our Grasp Achieving Higher Admissions Standards in Teacher Prep

Within Our Grasp: Achieving Higher Admissions Standards in Teacher Prep is the tenth annual publication in the State Teacher Policy Yearbook report series released by the National Council on Teacher Quality (NCTQ). This report focuses on teacher preparation program compliance with admissions policies required at the state level

Walsh, K., Joseph, N., and Lewis, A. (2016). Within Our Grasp: Achieving Higher Admissions Standards in Teacher Prep. National Council on Teacher Quality.

Failing Teachers?

This book describes the research undertaken during the Teaching Competence Project, a two-year research project funded by the Gatsby Charitable Foundation. There were five interlinked studies in the research.

Wragg, E. C., Chamberlin, R. P., & Haynes, G. S. (2005). Failing teachers?. Routledge.

High-stakes, Minimum-Competency Exams
This study examines the relationship between teacher candidate scores on authentic measures and their scores on certification exams required by the state of Texas.
Goodman, G., Arbona, C., & Dominguez De Rameriz, R. (2008). High-stakes, Minimum-Competency Exams. Journal of Teacher Education, 59(1), 24-39.

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