Informal Evaluation Overview
Cleaver, S., Detrich, R., & States, J. (2019). Summative assessment. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. Retrieved from https://www.winginstitute.org/staff-informal.
Informal Evaluation PDF
How to measure teacher effectiveness has been a persistent issue in education for decades (Greenwood & Maheady, 1997; Scheeler, Ruhl, & McAfee, 2004). The primary way to measure teacher effectiveness is in student outcomes. Multiple research studies have demonstrated that teacher effectiveness contributes to student performance (e.g., Hattie, 2009; Nye, Konstantopoulos, & Hedges, 2004). For example, Hattie (2009) found that teachers had a moderate effect size (0.35) on student reading, math, and writing outcomes. Nye et al. (2004) examined the between-teacher (within-school) variance of achievement gains, found that between 7% and 21% of student academic gains were attributable to teacher effectiveness. This latter study concluded that differences in class size could not explain variation in student achievement. Teacher experience and teacher education accounted for a small percentage (no more than 5%) of the difference in teacher effects. This indicates that there are “substantial differences” between teachers that contribute to differences in student achievement (Nye et al., 2004, p. 253).
In another study, Sanders and Rivers (1996) demonstrated that teachers had a cumulative effect over time. When students had three effective teachers across 3 consecutive years, there were differences in achievement of 50 percentile points. These studies (Hattie, 2009; Nye et al., 2004; Sanders & Rivers, 1996) confirm that teachers are important and that effective teachers make a difference in student outcomes, but they do not identify what effective teachers do to produce results for students.
As a measure of teacher effectiveness, teacher evaluation first came under scrutiny after the 1983 report, A Nation at Risk,was published by the National Commission on Excellence in Education and again after the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act (2002). The most recent federal education legislation, the Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015 does not require specific teacher evaluation, but does require state funds to go toward developing teacher evaluation and support systems that incorporate measures of performance and ways to give feedback (Fennell, 2016). There is now an understanding that teachers have an impact on student performance and that teacher practice can be improved. Feedback is one way to improve performance, and there are various ways to provide it, including informal evaluation.
The purpose of this overview is to provide information about informal evaluation as a practice in schools, and the current understanding of research related to informal teacher evaluation to improve teacher performance and student outcomes.
Defining Informal Evaluation
Teacher evaluation involves observation by a supervisor or peer followed by specific feedback, discussion, and reflection (Zepeda, 2009). Informal evaluation may occur within a broader context of teacher evaluation systems, which typically provide teachers, school leaders, and systems with information about how teachers are performing (Wise, Darling-Hammond, McLaughlin, & Bernstein, 1985).
Both formal and informal evaluation serve a variety of purposes for teachers and evaluators. The goals of formal evaluation are as follows:
- Create a common definition of “good teaching”
- Create a shared understanding and language to talk about teaching
- Support and cultivate strong evaluators (coaches, principals, etc.) who can observe and interpret evidence, and engage in dialogue about their practice with the goal of improving teacher performance and student achievement (Danielson, 2011).
Often, formal evaluation is not implemented according to best practice yet frequently is part of a system that impacts a teacher’s career. It typically occurs a few times during the year but may occur less often for veteran teachers (Weisburg, Sexton, Mulhern, & Keeling, 2009). Although formal evaluation has a role in education, within current systems its drawbacks in implementation limit its effectiveness.
Informal observation tends to be defined in contrast to formal observation. Formal evaluation involves structure (e.g., checklists, rubrics), controlled comparison, and use of formal teacher and student data for everything from feedback conversations to bonuses and tenure (Stake, 1967). In contrast, informal evaluation occurs outside a formal structure but may incorporate a structure (e.g., a checklist). Informal evaluation differs from formal evaluation mainly in that it is not tied to teacher bonuses or benefits, or hiring and retention. One benefit of informal evaluation is the lack of formal reward or consequence, as teachers may be more receptive to feedback if they are provided with it outside of consequences.
It is important to note that informal evaluation is not equivalent to a 3-minute walkthrough; it is more structured and in-depth than that (Downey, Steffy, English, Frase, & Poston, 2004). A 3-minute walkthrough is intended to provide school leaders with quick information (e.g., a checklist) about teacher alignment with district curriculum, use of best practices, and use of practices that promote student achievement. In contrast, an informal evaluation provides a longer observation with data collection and performance feedback around observable teacher behaviors. [RK1] [SC2]
How does Informal Evaluation Fit into Teacher Development?
The ultimate goal of teacher evaluation, formal or informal, is for teachers to improve their teaching practice (Danielson, 2011). This is accomplished through feedback and conversation after an initial observation. As occurs in a formal evaluation, the feedback teachers get from an informal evaluation must be based on performance and observable behaviors that contribute to teacher effectiveness and student success. The focus is on results, mainly that teachers need to understand what they are doing well and to continue those practices. Also, a clear target behavior that teachers can implement to improve their practice is essential, and, positive reinforcement must be in place to maintain target behaviors (e.g., Daniels, 2013). Positive reinforcement could be positive statements about a teacher’s work that connect to student learning (National Institute for Excellence in Teaching, n.d.). It could also take the form of self-monitoring. One case study of a teacher used self-monitoring as a tool to increase praise statements in a classroom for students with emotional and behavior disorders (Kalis, Vannest, & Parker, 2007).
Why Is Informal Evaluation Important?
Informal evaluation can address some concerns associated with more formal, traditional evaluation. These concerns include the following:
- Formal observations may provide feedback that is too generic and simplistic (e.g., a rating of satisfactory or outstanding).
- Formal evaluations may not sufficiently address the needs of individual teachers (e.g., providing veteran teachers less feedback than new teachers).
- Formal evaluations may not provide enough feedback to improve teacher performance.
- Formal evaluations can be a top-down process that feels like something that is “done to” teachers (Danielson, 2011).
In contrast, informal evaluation is a method of job-embedded learning that can provide relevance to teachers’ everyday experiences, and feedback that is built into the process to facilitate the transfer of new skills into practice (Zepeda, 2009).
An effective observation and feedback structure involves five phases (State Government of Victoria, Australia, 2019):
- Teachers reflecting on their practice to inform observations
- Pre-observation conversation with the person who will be observing them
- Observation
- Reflection using criteria and focused on student learning
- Post-observation conversation to implement new strategies and improve teaching and learning
Within the observation and feedback structure, informal observation increases the number of observations of teachers, thereby increasing the amount of feedback and reinforcement to change teacher behavior (Daniels, 2013; Zepeda, 2009). Put another way, the less formal structure of informal evaluation allows for more feedback and reinforcement to change teacher practice in a positive way.
Informal evaluation also uses data, collected during the observation process and provided in the post-observation conference (Zepeda, 2009). These data can support teacher development through ongoing discussions about teaching and learning. Teachers can use the data that accumulate when informal classroom observations occur regularly to chronicle changes in their instructional skills (Zepeda, 2009). For example, if a teacher is focusing on strengthening classroom conversation, data about teacher questions and students answers through multiple observations across a year can produce a concrete example of how the teacher improved and the resulting change in student conversation. These data can then inform future classroom practice.
Furthermore, when ongoing support for informal evaluation is provided and time is afforded within the regular school day for teachers to use the data collected for decision making, the practice of transferring skills into practice becomes part of the work of teaching. Informal observation can be a form of job-embedded learning or teacher development incorporated into daily practice and focused on teachers’ specific practices and content and their effect on student learning (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995; Hirsh, 2009). According to Zepeda (2009) in a guide to job-embedded learning, this practice accomplishes the following:
- Enhances reflection
- Promotes collegiality
- Combats isolation
- Makes learning more relevant for each teacher
- Supports ongoing refinement of practice
- Fosters a common lexicon that facilitates dialogue and improvement[RD3][SC4]
Informal evaluation can be provided in the form of coaching. Coaching is a way to build communities of teachers who are focused on improving their craft through professional relationships, including generating a shared language and common understanding around the goal of improving teaching. Evidence shows that coaching is a good way to hone and refine existing practices and skills (Cleaver, Detrich, & States, 2018a, 2018b). Informal evaluation is a way to provide teachers with more experiences of receiving observation and performance feedback and coaching, outside a formal evaluation structure.
Research on Informal Evaluation
What Do We Know?
Informal observations are a way to provide teachers with observational data and feedback on their practice outside formal evaluation procedures and structures. Still, there is no research on informal evaluation as it relates to changing teacher practice or improving student skills.
Informal observation may be combined with other researched aspects of teacher development, such as coaching, or providing teachers with ongoing observation and feedback through the relationship with a “coach” (e.g., trained instructional coach). The research on coaching can inform our understanding of informal evaluation. Coaching[SC5] has resulted in changes in student learning. In one study, Ross (1992) found that student achievement in seventh and eighth grade history classes improved when teachers had more interaction with coaches around their implementation of a program. In studies that addressed coaching in Head Start centers, teachers were shown to have improved classroom environment components (e.g., quality of writing centers) without changing their interactions with students (e.g., quality of language interactions) (Neuman & Wright, 2010; Powell, Diamond, Burchinal, & Koehler, 2010). This indicates that teachers may be able to change lower level behaviors (e.g., how teachers choose books for classroom libraries) much faster than higher level or behaviors[RD6] [SC7] (e.g., the language used with students).
What Don’t We Know Yet?
There is much we do not know about informal evaluation. There is no research specifically on the practice, so questions about how the practice is implemented in schools, how it can be implemented most effectively, and what outcomes can be produced for teachers and students remain. Questions for research include:
- How is informal evaluation implemented in schools? Who is implementing informal evaluation? What tools are being used? What school-level structures are in place?
- How does informal evaluation influence teacher practice and student outcomes?
- What practices of informal evaluation produce the greatest impact?
- What are necessary elements for informal evaluation to impact teacher practice and student performance?
- What infrastructure is necessary for carrying out systematic informal evaluation?
- What skills do teachers and school leaders need to be effective informal evaluators?
Implementation Considerations
School leaders who are implementing the practice of informal evaluation in their schools should adhere to what is known about teacher evaluation. For example, a study of the Chicago Public Schools Excellence in Teaching Project that used the Danielson Framework for Teaching (Danielson, 2013) as a model for teacher evaluation with coaching conversations identified the following best practices:
- Consistent definition of good teaching established for principals and teachers
- Meaningful conversations about practice during pre- and post-observation conferences
- Focused conversations about what matters and instruction (Danielson, 2011).
The following are some factors to consider when establishing routines around informal evaluation:
- Finding effective observers and mentors: When and how will observations be conducted? And by whom? Informal evaluations are often conducted by peers or outside the formal evaluation setting, so schools may have coaches or teacher mentors rather than administrators in the coaching role.
- Data collection: What type of observation data will be collected? How will it be shared with teachers?
- Conversation prompts and questions: How will teachers be engaged in conversation about their practice and what was observed?
- Tracking progress: How will changes in teacher practice and student progress be measured?
Cost Considerations
The cost of informal evaluation depends on available staff and school size. Some cost considerations include:
- The time it takes to train staff
- The time it takes staff to provide observations and engage in follow-up conversations
- Evaluation systems used to collect and monitor data
Conclusion
Informal evaluation is the process of observing a teacher’s practice and using data from the observation to shape teacher practice and improve student outcomes. Given that teacher practices influence student outcomes, how teachers are provided with professional development including informal evaluation demands consideration. Currently, there is no research on informal evaluation; however, research on formal evaluation and coaching indicate that the cycle of observation and feedback is beneficial for teacher development and should be a part of teacher development.
Citations
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Teachers and student achievement in the Chicago Public High Schools
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Aaronson, D., Barrow, L., & Sander, W. (2007). Teachers and student achievement in the Chicago public high schools. Journal of labor Economics, 25(1), 95-135.
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Pushing the horizons of student teacher supervision: Can a bug-in-ear system be an effective plug-and-play tool for a novice electronic coach to use in student teacher supervision? ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
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The effectiveness of a technologically facilitated classroom-based early reading intervention: The targeted reading intervention
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ASA statement on using value-added models for educational assessment
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The book presents many examples of Questioning the Author (QtA) in action as children engage with narrative and expository texts to construct meaning.
Beck, I. L., & McKeown, M. G., Hamilton, R. L., & Kugan, L. (1997). Questioning the Author: An approach for enhancing student engagement with text.Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Questioning the Author: An approach for enhancing student engagement with text
The book presents many examples of Questioning the Author (QtA) in action as children engage with narrative and expository texts to construct meaning.
Beck, I. L., & McKeown, M. G., Hamilton, R. L., & Kugan, L. (1997). Questioning the Author: An approach for enhancing student engagement with text.Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
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Effects of coaching on teachers’ use of function-based interventions for students with severe disabilities
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The value in value added depends on the ecology.
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The Long-Term Impacts Of Teachers: Teacher Value-Added And Student Outcomes In Adulthood
This paper examines the issue of efficacy of value-added measures in evaluating teachers. This question is important in understanding whether value-added analysis provides unbiased estimates of teachers’ impact on student achievement and whether these teachers improve long-term student outcomes.
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How does your kindergarten classroom affect your earnings? Evidence from Project STAR.
This paper evaluates the long-term impacts of STAR by linking the experimental data to administrative records.
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Teacher Coaching Overview
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Cleaver, S., Detrich, R. & States, J. (2018). Overview of Teacher Evaluation. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. https://www.winginstitute.org/teacher-evaluation-teacher-coaching.
Overview: Formal Teacher Evaluation
The purpose of this overview is to provide information about the role of formal teacher evaluation, the research that examines the practice, and its impact on student outcomes.
Value-Added Research in Education: Reliability, Validity, Efficacy, and Usefulness
The purpose of this paper on value-added research in education is to define this type of research, provide an overview of how it has been conducted, and discuss its benefits and limitations.
Cleaver, S., Detrich, R. & States, J. (2020). Overview of Value-Added Research in Education: Reliability, Validity, Efficacy, and Usefulness. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. https://www.winginstitute.org/staff-value-added.
Informal Teacher Evaluation
The purpose of this overview is to provide information about informal evaluation as a practice in schools, and the current understanding of research related to informal teacher evaluation to improve teacher performance and student outcomes.
Cleaver, S., Detrich, R., & States, J. (2019). Informal Teacher Evaluation. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. Retrieved from https://www.winginstitute.org/staff-informal.
Overview of Teacher Evaluation
The purpose of this overview is to provide an understanding of the research base on professional development and its impact on student achievement, as well as offer recommendations for future teacher professional development
Cleaver, S., Detrich, R., States, J. & Keyworth, R. (2020). Overview of Teacher Evaluation. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. quality-teachers-in-service.
Teacher heterogeneity, value-added and education policy.
This study examines the theoretical and practical implications of ranking teachers with a one-dimensional value-added metric when teacher effectiveness varies across subjects or student types.
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An Evaluation of Teachers Trained Through Different Routes to Certification, Final Report
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Introduction to classical and modern test theory.
This text was written to help the reader acquire a base of knowledge about classical psychometrics and to integrate new ideas into that framework of knowledge.
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Evaluations that help teachers learn.
This article addresses the topics of staff assessment, teacher supervision, and professional development.
Danielson, C. (2011). Evaluations that help teachers learn. Educational leadership, 68(4), 35-39.
The framework for teaching evaluation instrument, 2013 instructionally focused edition
The Framework for Teaching identifies those aspects of a teacher's responsibilities that have
been documented through empirical studies and theoretical research as promoting
improved student learning.
Danielson, C. (2013). The framework for teaching evaluation instrument, 2013 instructionally focused edition. Retrieved from: https://bibliotecadigital.mineduc.cl/bitstream/handle/20.500.12365/17302/2013_FfTEvalInstrument_Web_v1.2_20140825_.pdf
Policies that support professional development in an era of reform.
In this article the authors examine some design principles to guide policy-makers and school reformers who seek to promote learner-centred professional development which involves teachers as active and reflective participants in the change process.
Darling-Hammond, L., & McLaughlin, M. W. (1995). Policies that support professional development in an era of reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(8), 597–604.
What research says about using value-added measures to evaluate teachers.
A growing number of researchers are studying whether value-added measures can do a good job of measuring the contribution of teachers to test score growth. Here I summarize a handful of analyses that shed light on two questions.
David, J. L. (2010). What research says about using value-added measures to evaluate teachers. Educational Leadership, 67(8), 81–82. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational_leadership/may10/vol67/num08/Using_Value-Added_Measures_to_Evaluate_Teachers.aspx
The three-minute classroom walkthrough: Changing school supervisory practice one teacher at a time
The Three-Minute Classroom Walk-Through offers a practical, time-saving alternative that impacts student achievement by cultivating self-reliant teachers who are continuously improving their practice.
Downey, C. J., Steffy, B. E., English, F. W., Frase, L. E., & Poston, W. K. (2004). The three-minute classroom walkthrough: Changing school supervisory practice one teacher at a time. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Value-added modeling and educational accountability: Are we answering the real questions?
Value-added estimates of teacher or school quality are increasingly used for both high- and low-stakes accountability purposes, making understanding of their limitations critical.
Everson, K. C. (2017). Value-added modeling and educational accountability: Are we answering the real questions?. Review of Educational Research, 87(1), 35-70.
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This paper exams teachers' views on unions, tenure, pay-for-performance, alternative certification, and other issues and finds that while most teachers are strong supporters of standards, a sense of vulnerability, along with fears of politics and favoritism, make them loyal to the tenure system, loyal to their unions, and highly skeptical about pay tied to student test scores.
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merit pay, and other professional matters. New York: Public Agenda.
What educators need to know about ESSA.
The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) returns decision making for our nation’s education back where it belongs – in the hands of local educators, families, and communities – while keeping the focus on students most in need.
Fennell, M. (2016). What educators need to know about ESSA. Educational Leadership, 73, 62–65.
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This paper describes a continuous learning model of principal and superintendent support. The model places a premium on engagement at all levels of the system on shaping a focused culture of instruction within their schools.
Fink, E., & Resnick, L. B. (2001). Developing principals as instructional leaders. Phi Delta Kappan, 82(8), 598-610.
Leading for Instructional Improvement: How Successful Leaders Develop Teaching and Learning Expertise
This book shows how principals and other school leaders can develop the skills necessary for teachers to deliver high quality instruction by introducing principals to a five-part model of effective instruction.
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Coaching middle-level teachers to think aloud improves comprehension instruction and student reading achievement
In an effort to improve student achievement, a group of middle-school teachers at an underperforming school developed a school-wide literacy plan. As part of the plan, they agreed to model their thinking while reading aloud. Eight teachers were selected for coaching related to thinking aloud in which they exposed students to comprehension strategies that they used while reading.
Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Lapp, D. (2011). Coaching middle-level teachers to think aloud improves comprehension instruction and student reading achievement. The Teacher Educator, 46(3), 231-243.
Strategies for Effective Classroom Coaching
This article aimed to present frameworks and practices coaches can use with classroom teachers to facilitate the implementation of evidence-based interventions in schools.
Garbacz, S. A., Lannie, A. L., Jeffrey-Pearsall, J. L., & Truckenmiller, A. J. (2015). Strategies for effective classroom coaching. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 59(4), 263-273.
Is it just a bad class? Assessing the stability of measured teacher performance.
This paper report on work estimating the stability of value-added estimates of teacher effects, an important area of investigation given that new workforce policies implicitly assume that effectiveness is a stable attribute within teachers.
Goldhaber, D. D., & Hansen, M. (2008). Is it Just a Bad Class?: Assessing the Stability of Measured Teacher Performance. Seattle, WA: Center on Reinventing Public Education.
Make room value added: Principals’ human capital decisions and the emergence of teacher observation data.
Interview and survey data from six school districts that have recently implemented new evaluation systems with classroom observations provide evidence that principals tend to rely less on test scores in their human capital decisions.
Goldring, E., Grissom, J. A., Rubin, M., Neumerski, C. M., Cannata, M., Drake, T., & Schuermann, P. (2015). Make room value added: Principals’ human capital decisions and the emergence of teacher observation data. Educational Researcher, 44(2), 96-104.
Measurable change in student performance: Forgotten standard in teacher preparation?
This paper describe a few promising assessment technologies tat allow us to capture more direct, repeated, and contextually based measures of student learning, and propose an improvement-oriented approach to teaching and learning.
Greenwood, C. R., & Maheady, L. (1997). Measurable change in student performance: Forgotten standard in teacher preparation?. Teacher Education and Special Education, 20(3), 265-275.
What is Effective Instructional Leadership? Longitudinal Evidence from Observations of Principals
This study draws on in-person observations of principals collected over full school days over two different school years in a large, urban district to investigate how principals allocate their time across different instructional leadership tasks, and how instructional time use is associated with school effectiveness.
Grissom, J. A., Loeb, S., & Master, B. (2012, November). What is effective instructional leadership? Longitudinal evidence from observations of principals. In Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management annual meeting, November.
Effective Instructional Time Use for School Leaders: Longitudinal Evidence From Observations of Principals
This study examines the associations between leadership behaviors and student achievement gains using a unique data source: in-person, full-day observations of principals collected over three school years. The study finds that principals’ time spent broadly on instructional functions does not predict student achievement growth. Time spent on informal classroom walkthroughs negatively predicts student growth, particularly in high schools.
Grissom, J. A., Loeb, S., & Master, B. (2013). Effective instructional time use for school leaders longitudinal evidence from observations of principals. Educational Researcher, 0013189X13510020.
What works in professional development?
A research synthesis confirms the difficulty of translating professional development into student achievement gains despite the intuitive and logical connection. Those responsible for planning and implementing professional development must learn how to critically assess and evaluate the effectiveness of what they do.
Guskey, T. R., & Yoon, K. S.(2009). What works in professional development? Phi Delta Kappan.doi: 10.1177003172170909000709.
Generalizations about using value-added measures of teacher quality.
The precise method of attributing differences in classroom achievement to teachers is the
subject of considerable discussion and analysis.
Hanushek, E. A., & Rivkin, S. G. (2010). Generalizations about using value-added measures of teacher quality. American Economic Review, 100(2), 267-71.
The role of cognitive skills in economic development.
This paper reviews the role of cognitive skills in promoting economic well-being, with a particular focus on the role of school quality and quantity.
Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2008). The role of cognitive skills in economic development. Journal of economic literature, 46(3), 607-68.
Skills, productivity, and the evaluation of teacher performance.
The authors examine the relationships between observational ratings of teacher performance, principals’ evaluations of teachers’ cognitive and non-cognitive skills and test-score based measures of teachers’ productivity.
Harris, D. N., & Sass, T. R. (2014). Skills, productivity and the evaluation of teacher performance. Economics of Education Review, 40, 183-204.
Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement
Hattie’s book is designed as a meta-meta-study that collects, compares and analyses the findings of many previous studies in education. Hattie focuses on schools in the English-speaking world but most aspects of the underlying story should be transferable to other countries and school systems as well. Visible Learning is nothing less than a synthesis of more than 50.000 studies covering more than 80 million pupils. Hattie uses the statistical measure effect size to compare the impact of many influences on students’ achievement, e.g. class size, holidays, feedback, and learning strategies.
Hattie, J. (2008). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. New York, NY: Routledge.
A New Definition
NSDC opens the door to professional learning that ensures great teaching for every student every day
Hirsh, S. (2009). A new definition. Journal of Staff Development, 30(4), 10–16.
Can Principals Identify Effective Teachers? Evidence on Subjective Performance Evaluation in Education
This paper examines how well principals can distinguish between more and less effective teachers. To put principal evaluations in context, we compare them with the traditional determinants of teacher compensation-education and experience-as well as value-added measures of teacher effectiveness.
Jacob, B. A., & Lefgren, L. (2008). Can principals identify effective teachers? Evidence on subjective performance evaluation in education. Journal of Labor Economics, 26(1), 101-136.
Teacher perspectives on evaluation reform: Chicago’s REACH students.
This study draws on 32 interviews from a random sample of teachers and 2 years of survey data from more than 12,000 teachers per year to measure their perceptions of the clarity, practicality, and cost of the new system.
Jiang, J. Y., Sporte, S. E., & Luppescu, S. (2015). Teacher perspectives on evaluation reform: Chicago’s REACH students. Educational Researcher, 44(2), 105-116.
Student Achievement through Staff Development
This book provides research as well as case studies of successful professional development strategies and practices for educators.
Joyce, B. R., & Showers, B. (2002). Student achievement through staff development. ASCD.
Praise counts: Using self-monitoring to increase effective teaching practices
The authors examined the effectiveness of self-monitoring for increasing the rates of teacher praise statements and the acceptability of using this technique for teachers. This study's results support the use of self-monitoring to increase effective teaching practices, namely praise, and further demonstrates high social validity for the participant and the students.
Kalis, T. M., Vannest, K. J., & Parker, R. (2007). Praise counts: Using self-monitoring to increase effective teaching practices. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 51(3), 20-27.
Assessing the cost of instructional coaching.
this study presents and apply a framework for measuring the cost of coaching programs to 3 schools. Then the study discusses strategies for reducing the average cost of instructional coaching.
Knight, D. S. (2012). Assessing the cost of instructional coaching. Journal of Education Finance, 52-80.
A measured approach: Value-added models are a promising improvement, but no one measure can evaluate teacher performance
The education policy community is abuzz with interest in value-added modeling as a way to estimate the effectiveness of schools and especially teachers. Value-added models provide useful information, but that information is error-prone and has a number of other important limitations.
Koretz, D. (2008). A measured approach. American Educator, 32(2), 18-39.
The validity of gains on the Kentucky Instructional Results Information System (KIRIS).
This study evaluated the extent to which the large performance gains shown on KIRIS represented real improvements in student learning rather than inflation of scores.
Koretz, D. M., & Barron, S. I. (1998). The validity of gains on the Kentucky instructional results information system. KIRIS). Santa Monica: RAND.
The effect of teacher coaching on instruction and achievement: A meta-analysis of the causal evidence
This study review the empirical literature on teacher coaching and conduct meta-analyses to estimate the mean effect of coaching programs on teachers’ instructional practice and students’ academic achievement.
Kraft, M. A., Blazar, D., & Hogan, D. (2018). The effect of teacher coaching on instruction and achievement: A meta-analysis of the causal evidence. Review of Educational Research, 88(4), 547-588.
Using Coaching to improve the Fidelity of Evidence-Based Practices: A Review of Studies
The authors conducted a comprehensive review of research to identify the impact of coaching on changes in preservice and in-service teachers’ implementation of evidence-based practices.
Kretlow, A. G., & Bartholomew, C. C. (2010). Using coaching to improve the fidelity of evidence-based practices: A review of studies. Teacher Education and Special Education, 33(4), 279-299.
Using in-service and coaching to increase teachers’ accurate use of research-based strategies
This study examined the effects of in-service plus follow-up coaching on first grade teachers’ accurate delivery of three research-based strategies during math instruction.
Kretlow, A. G., Cooke, N. L., & Wood, C. L. (2012). Using in-service and coaching to increase teachers’ accurate use of research-based strategies. Remedial and Special Education, 33(6), 348-361.
Using in-service and coaching to increase kindergarten teachers’ accurate delivery of group instructional units.
This study examined the effects of in-service support plus coaching on kindergarten teachers’ accurate delivery of group instructional units in math.
Kretlow, A. G., Wood, C. L., & Cooke, N. L. (2011). Using in-service and coaching to increase kindergarten teachers’ accurate delivery of group instructional units. The Journal of Special Education, 44(4), 234-246.
What matters for elementary literacy coaching? Guiding principles for instructional improvement and student achievement
The seven guiding principles in this manuscript offer research-based directions for literacy coaching.
L’Allier, S., Elish-Piper, L., & Bean, R. M. (2011). What matters for elementary literacy coaching? Guiding principles for instructional improvement and student achievement. The Reading Teacher, 63,544-554. doi: 10.1598/RT.63.7.2
Teacher Incentives
Three questions are addressed. First, what are the principles behind creating optimal teacher incentives, and how close do the actual structures in Sweden and the US conform to the ideal ones? Second, how much is performance affected by creating incentives for current teachers, and how much by changing the pool of teacher applicants? Third, do teacher preferences align with those of their students and of society in general, and if not, why not? Associated with each of these questions are policy implications that may remedy existing distortions.
Lazear, E. P. (2003). Teacher incentives. Swedish Economic Policy Review, 10(2), 179-214.
The sensitivity of value-added teacher effect estimates to different mathematics achievement measures.
Using longitudinal data from a cohort of middle school students from a large school district,
we estimate separate “value‐added” teacher effects for two subscales of a mathematics
assessment under a variety of statistical models varying in form and degree of control for
student background characteristics.
Lockwood, J. R., McCaffrey, D. F., Hamilton, L. S., Stecher, B., Le, V. N., & Martinez, J. F. (2007). The sensitivity of value‐added teacher effect estimates to different mathematics achievement measures. Journal of Educational Measurement, 44(1), 47-67.
The Role of Districts in Fostering Instructional Improvement Lessons from Three Urban Districts Partnered with the Institute for Learning
This study analyzed three urban districts' efforts to improve the instructional quality and performance of their schools. The study also assessed the efforts made in four: (1) promoting the instructional leadership of principals; (2) supporting the professional learning of teachers, in particular through school-based coaching models; (3) specifying curriculum; (4) and promoting data-based decision making for planning and instructional improvement.
Marsh, J. A., Kerr, K. A., Ikemoto, G. S., Darilek, H., Suttorp, M., Zimmer, R. W., & Barney, H. (2005). The Role of Districts in Fostering Instructional Improvement Lessons from Three Urban Districts Partnered with the Institute for Learning. RAND Corporation.
Distorting value-added: The use of longitudinal, vertically scaled student achievement data for growth-based, value-added accountability.
This study demonstrates mathematically that the use of such “construct-shifting” vertical scales in longitudinal, value-added models introduces remarkable distortions in the value-added estimates of the majority of educators
Martineau, J. A. (2006). Distorting value-added: The use of longitudinal, vertically scaled student achievement data for growth-based, value-added accountability. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31(1), 35–62.
The effect of content-focused coaching on the quality of classroom text discussions
This study examines the effect of a comprehensive literacy-coaching program focused on enacting a discussion-based approach to reading comprehension instruction (content-focused coaching [CFC]) on the quality of classroom text discussions over 2 years.
Matsumura, L. C., Garnier, H.E., Spybrook, J. (2012). The effect of content-focused coaching on the quality of classroom text discussions. Journal of Teacher Education, 63,214-228.
Do value-added methods level the playing field for teachers? Carnegie Knowledge Network
In this brief, we discuss what is and is not known about how well value‐added measures level the playing field for teachers by controlling for student characteristics.
McCaffrey, D. F. (2012). Do value-added methods level the playing field for teachers. Carnegie Knowledge Network.
Is value-added accurate for teachers of students with disabilities
In this brief, we discuss the challenges of using value-added to evaluate teachers of students with disabilities.
McCaffrey, D. F., & Buzick, H. (2014). Is value-added accurate for teachers of students with disabilities. Carnegie Knowledge Network Brief, (14).
Missing data in value-added modeling of teacher effects
The current study extends recent value-added modeling approaches for longitudinal student achievement data Lockwood et al. [J. Educ. Behav. Statist. 32 (2007) 125–150] to allow data to be missing not at random via random effects selection and pattern mixture models, and applies those methods to data from a large urban school district to estimate effects of elementary school mathematics teachers.
McCaffrey, D. F., & Lockwood, J. R. (2011). Missing data in value-added modeling of teacher effects. The Annals of Applied Statistics, 773-797.
Evaluating Value-Added Models for Teacher Accountability. Monograph.
Value added modeling has become of interest to policymakers interested in evaluating teacher performance. The authors argue that the models work well when the schools in the sample are homogenous but as heterogeneity of the student population increases estimates of teacher effects are likely to confounded.
McCaffrey, D. F., Lockwood, J. R., Koretz, D. M., & Hamilton, L. S. (2003). Evaluating Value-Added Models for Teacher Accountability. Monograph. ERIC. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED529961
Early intervention in reading: From research to practice
This study documents the implementation of research-based strategies to minimize the occurrence of reading difficulties in a first-grade population. Three strategies were implemented.
Menzies, H. M, Mahdavi, J. N., & Lewis, J. L. (2008). Early intervention in reading: From research to practice. Remedial and Special Education, 29(2), 67-77.
The relationship between standards-based teacher evaluation scores and student achievement: Replication and extensions at three sites
This paper reports on the results of the analysis of an additional year of evaluation and student achievement data at some research.
Milanowski, A. T., Kimball, S. M., & White, B. (2004). The Relationship Between Standards-Based Teacher Evaluation Scores and Student Achievement: Replication and Extensions at Three Sites Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE)-University of Wisconsin Working Paper Series. TC, 4(01).
Formative classroom walkthroughs: How principals and teachers collaborate to raise student achievement
This book examines principal leadership with the focus on formative assessment. The book looks at efforts to improve student performance through Formative Classroom Walkthoughs.
Moss, C. M., & Brookhart, S. M. (2015). Formative classroom walkthroughs: How principals and teachers collaborate to raise student achievement. ASCD.
How important are the cognitive skills of teenagers in predicting subsequent earnings?
How important are teenagers' cognitive skills in predicting subsequent labor market success? Do cognitive skills pay off in the labor market only for students who go to college? Does college benefit only students who enter with strong basic skills? These questions are often part of current policy debates about how to improve the earnings prospects for young Americans.
Murnane, R. J., Willett, J. B., Duhaldeborde, Y., & Tyler, J. H. (2000). How important are the cognitive skills of teenagers in predicting subsequent earnings?. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 19(4), 547-568.
A Nation at Risk: The imperative for education reform.
This report is concerned with only one of the many causes and dimensions of the problem, but it is the one that undergirds American prosperity, security, and civility.
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation at Risk: The imperative for education reform. Retrieved from https://www.edreform.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/A_Nation_At_Risk_1983.pdf
Promoting language and literacy development for early childhood educators: A mixed-methods study of coursework and coaching
This study examines the impact of 2 forms of professional development on prekindergarten teachers' early language and literacy practice: coursework and coaching.
Neuman, S. B., & Wright, T. S. (2010). Promoting language and literacy development for early childhood educators: A mixed-methods study of coursework and coaching. Elementary School Journal, 11,63-86. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, P.L. 107-110, 20 U.S.C. § 6319 (2002).
Promoting Language and Literacy Development for Early Childhood Educators: A Mixed-Methods Study of Coursework and Coaching
The goal of the study was to examine the effects of coaching or professional development coursework on teacher knowledge and teacher practice.
Neuman, S. B., & Wright, T. S. (2010). Promoting language and literacy development for early childhood educators: A mixed-methods study of coursework and coaching. Elementary School Journal, 111,63–86.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 ESEA Reauthorization
No child left behind act of 2001. Publ. L, 107-110. (2002)
How large are teacher effects?
This research use data from a four-year experiment in which teachers and students were randomly assigned to classes to estimate teacher effects on student achievement.
Nye, B., Konstantopoulos, S., & Hedges, L. V. (2004). How large are teacher effects? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 26(3),237–257.
Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children
Effects of a 1-semester professional development (PD) intervention that included expert coaching with Head Start teachers were investigated in a randomized controlled trial with 88 teachers and 759 children.
Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 299-312.
Using Coaching to Support Teacher Implementation of Classroom-based Interventions.
This study evaluted the impact of coaching on the implementation of an intervention. Coaching with higher rates of performance feedback resulted in the highest level of treatment integrity.
Reinke, W., Stormont, M., Herman, K., & Newcomer, L. (2014). Using Coaching to Support Teacher Implementation of Classroom-based Interventions. Journal of Behavioral Education, 23(1), 150-167.
Teachers, schools, and academic achievement.
This paper disentangles the impact of schools and teachers in influencing achievement with special attention given to the potential problems of omitted or mismeasured variables and of student and school selection.
Rivkin, S. G., Hanushek, E. A., & Kain, J. F. (2005). Teachers, schools, and academic achievement. Econometrica, 73(2), 417-458.
The Impact of Leadership On Student Outcomes: an Analysis Of The Differential Effects Of Leadership Types
The purpose of this study is to examine the relative impact of different types of leadership on students’ academic and nonacademic outcomes.
Robinson, V. M., Lloyd, C. A., & Rowe, K. J. (2008). The impact of leadership on student outcomes: An analysis of the differential effects of leadership types. Educational administration quarterly.
Teacher Efficacy and the Effects of Coaching on Student Achievement 1
This research considers relationships between student achievement (knowledge and cognitive skill), teacher efficacy (Gibson & Dembo, 1984), and interactions with assigned coaches (self-report measures) in a sample of 18 grade 7 and 8 history teachers in 36 classes implementing a specific innovation with the help of 6 coaches.
Ross, J. A. (1992). Teacher efficacy and the effects of coaching on student achievement. Canadian Journal of Education, 17(1), 51–65.
Teacher quality in educational production: Tracking, decay, and student achievement.
The author develop falsification tests for three widely used VAM specifications, based on the idea that future teachers cannot influence students' past achievement.
Rothstein, J. (2010). Teacher quality in educational production: Tracking, decay, and student achievement. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125(1), 175-214.
A randomized controlled trial of COMPASS web-based and face-to-face teacher coaching in autism
Most children with autism rely on schools as their primary source of intervention, yet research has suggested that teachers rarely use evidence-based practices. To address the need for improved educational outcomes, a previously tested consultation intervention called the Collaborative Model for Promoting Competence and Success was evaluated in a 2nd randomized controlled trial, with the addition of a web-based group.
Ruble, L. A., McGrew, J. H., Toland, M. D., Dalrymple, N. J., & Jung, L. (2013). A randomized controlled trial of COMPASS web-based and face-to-face teacher coaching in autism. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81, 566-572.
Using value-added models to measure teacher effects on students’ motivation and achievement
Using data from 35 seventh-grade teachers and 2,026 students across seven schools, we employ VA methods to measure teacher contributions to students’ motivational orientations (mastery and performance achievement goals) and their mathematics performance.
Ruzek, E. A., Domina, T., Conley, A. M., Duncan, G. J., & Karabenick, S. A. (2015). Using value-added models to measure teacher effects on students’ motivation and achievement. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 35(5-6), 852-882.
Professional development for cognitive reading strategy instruction
In this article, we describe and report on the results of a study in Texas that tested 2 models of professional development for classroom teachers as a way of improving their practices and increasing the reading achievement of their students.
Sailors, M., & Price, L. (2010). Professional development for cognitive reading strategy instruction. Elementary School Journal, 110,301-323.
Research Findings from the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System (TVAAS) Database: Implications for Educational Evaluation and Research
The Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System determines the effectiveness of school systems, schools, and teachers based on student academic growth over time.
Sanders, W. L., & Horn, S. P. (1998). Research findings from the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System (TVAAS) database: Implications for educational evaluation and research. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 12(3), 247-256.
Cumulative and residual effects of teachers on future student academic achievement.
The Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System determines the effectiveness of school systems, schools, and teachers based on student academic growth over time. Research conducted utilizing data from the TVAAS database has shown that race, socioeconomic level, class size, and classroom heterogeneity are poor predictors of student academic growth. Rather, the effectiveness of the teacher is the major determinant of student academic progress.
Sanders, W. L., & Rivers, J. C. (1996). Cumulative and residual effects of teachers on future student academic achievement.
Providing Performance Feedback to Teachers: A Review.
This paper reviews the empirical research on the effectiveness of performance feedback as a means of influencing teacher implementation of interventions.
Scheeler, M. C., Ruhl, K. L., & McAfee, J. K. (2004). Providing Performance Feedback to Teachers: A Review. Teacher Education & Special Education, 27(4).
Effects of multilevel support on first-grade teachers’ use of research-based strategies during beginning reading instruction
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of multilevel support on first-grade teachers' accurate use of research-based strategies during beginning reading instruction and the extent to which teachers maintained use of these strategies.
Schnorr, C. I. (2013). Effects of multilevel support on first-grade teachers' use of research-based strategies during beginning reading instruction (Doctoral dissertation, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte).
The countenance of educational evaluation
In his 1964 paper, "Course Improvement through Evaluation, " Lee Cronbach urged another step: a most generous inclusion of behavioral - science variables in order to examine the possible causes and effects of quality teaching He proposed that the main objective for evaluation is to uncover durable relationships -those appropriate for guiding future educational programs.
Stake, R. E. (1967). The countenance of educational evaluation. Teachers College Record, 68, 523–540.Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.543.5561&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Teacher tip: Peer observation, feedback and reflection
Peer observation aims to support the sharing of practice, and builds self-awareness about the impact of one's teaching practice in order to affect change.
State Government of Victoria, Australia. (2019). Teacher tip: Peer observation, feedback and reflection.Retrieved from https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/classrooms/Pages/approachesppnpeerobstip.aspx
Summative Assessment Overview
Summative assessment is an appraisal of learning at the end of an instructional unit or at a specific point in time. It compares student knowledge or skills against standards or benchmarks. Summative assessment includes midterm exams, final project, papers, teacher-designed tests, standardized tests, and high-stakes tests.
States, J., Detrich, R. & Keyworth, R. (2018). Overview of Summative Assessment. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. https://www.winginstitute.org/assessment-summative
Incorporating student performance measures into teacher evaluation systems.
the authors examine how the five profiled systems are addressing assessment quality, evaluating teachers in nontested subjects and grades, and assigning teachers responsibility for particular students. The authors also examine what is and is not known about the quality of various student performance measures used by school systems.
Steele, J. L., Hamilton, L. S., & Stecher, B. M. (2010). Incorporating Student Performance Measures into Teacher Evaluation Systems. Technical Report. Rand Corporation.
Multitiered support framework for teachers’ classroom-management practices: Overview and case study of building the triangle for teachers
In this article, the authors describe key features of the multi-tiered support (MTS) continuum of intervention and assessment and present a case study to illustrate implementation of some components of the framework with four middle school teachers.
Sugai, G. (2014). Multitiered support framework for teachers’ classroom-management practices: Overview and case study of building the triangle for teachers. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 16(3), 179-190.
Targeted reading intervention: A coaching model to help classroom teachers with struggling readers
This study examined the effectiveness of a classroom teacher intervention, the Targeted Reading Intervention (TRI), in helping struggling readers in kindergarten and first grade. This intervention used biweekly literacy coaching in the general education classroom to help classroom teachers use diagnostic strategies with struggling readers in one-on-one 15-min sessions.
Targeted reading intervention: A coaching model to help classroom teachers with struggling readers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 35, 102-114.
The Mirage: Confronting the truth about our quest for teacher development
"The Mirage" describes the widely held perception among education leaders that they already know how to help teachers improve, and that they could achieve their goal of great teaching in far more classrooms if they just applied what they knew more widely.
TNTP. (2015). The Mirage: Confronting the truth about our quest for teacher development. Retrieved from: https://tntp.org/publications/view/the-mirage-confronting-the-truth-about-our-quest-for-teacher-development
Rush to judgment: Teacher evaluation in public education
The authors examine the causes and consequences of the status of teacher evaluation and its implications for the current national debate about performance pay for teachers. The report also examines a number of national, state, and local evaluation systems that offer potential alternatives to current practice.
Toch, T., & Rothman, R. (2008). Rush to Judgment: Teacher Evaluation in Public Education. Education Sector Reports. Education Sector.
Evaluation of the school administration manager project
This study examines the School Administration Manager (SAM) project, that focused on changing the conditions in schools that prevent principals from devoting more time to instructional leadership.
Turnbull, B. J., Haslam, M. B., Arcaira, E. R., Riley, D. L., Sinclair, B., & Coleman, S. (2009). Evaluation of the school administration manager project. Policy Studies Associates, Inc.
The coaching of teachers: Results of five training studies.
In this study, the results of five training studies evaluating the effects of a coaching program for use in Dutch primary and secondary schools are described.
Veenman, S, & Denessen, E. (2001). The coaching of teachers: Results of five training studies.
Educational Research and Evaluation, 7(4), 385–417.
The Widget Effect: Our National Failure to Acknowledge and Act on Differences in Teacher Effectiveness.
This report examines the pervasive and longstanding failure to recognize and respond to variations in the effectiveness of teachers.
Weisberg, D., Sexton, S., Mulhern, J., Keeling, D., Schunck, J., Palcisco, A., & Morgan, K. (2009). The widget effect: Our national failure to acknowledge and act on differences in teacher effectiveness. New Teacher Project.
Making the case for evidence-based policy
U.S. public policy has increasingly been conceived, debated, and evaluated through the lenses of politics and ideology. The fundamental question -- Will the policy work? -- too often gets short shrift or even ignored. A remedy is an evidence-based policy--a rigorous approach that draws on careful data collection, experimentation, and both quantitative and qualitative analysis to determine what the problem is, which ways it can be addressed, and the probable impacts of each of these ways.
Wesley, P. W., & Buysse, V. (2006). Making the case for evidence- based policy. In V. Buysse & P. W. Wesley (Eds.), Evidence-based practice in the early childhood field (pp. 117–159). Washington, DC: Zero to Three.
Teacher Evaluation: A Study of Effective Practices
A preliminary survey of 32 school districts identified as having highly developed teacher evaluation systems was followed by the selection of 4 case study districts.
Role of professional development and multi-level coaching in promoting evidence-based practice in education
Due to the increased need to support teachers' use of evidence-based practices in multi-tiered systems of support such as RTI [Response to Intervention] and PBIS [Positive Behavior Interventions and Support], coaching can extend and strengthen professional development. This paper describes a multi-level approach to coaching and provides implications for practice and research.
Wood, C. L., Goodnight, C. I., Bethune, K. S., Preston, A. I., Cleaver, S. L. (2016). Role of professional development and multi-level coaching in promoting evidence-based practice in education. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 14,159-170.
Reviewing the Evidence on How Teacher Professional Development Affects Student Achievement. Issues & Answers.
The purpose of this study is to examine research to answer the question, What is the impact of teacher professional development on student achievement.
Yoon, K. S., Duncan, T., Lee, S. W. Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. L. (2007). Reviewing the Evidence on How Teacher Professional Development Affects Student Achievement. Issues & Answers. REL 2007-No. 033. Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest (NJ1).
The instructional leaders’ guide to informal classroom observations
This second edition includes an expanded set of classroom observation tools, moving from 23 to 40 and more linkages to the job-embedded nature of the informal classroom observations.
Zepeda, S. J. (2009). The instructional leaders’ guide to informal classroom observations.New York, NY: Routledge.
